CHEMISTRY

by:

Engr. Rowena P. Calasara

It is s a branch of science that focuses
on the structure, composition, and
properties of matter.

Answer: Chemistry
Anything that occupies space and has
mass.

Answer: Matter
Composed of particles that are tightly
packed and have a regular
arrangement.
Answer: Solid
Solids are divided into two:

1. It consists of particles arranged in a

definite geometric shape or form that is
distinctive for a given solid.

Answer: Crystalline solid

It consists of particles arranged in an
irregular manner, and thus lacks shape or
form.

Answer: Amorphous solid

It is composed of particles whose
arrangement and packing are somewhere
between those in solid and gas.

It is composed of particles with no regular

arrangement and no appreciable packing.

Answer: Liquid

Gas
It is the actual escape of molecules from the surface of
the liquid to form a vapor in the surrounding space
above the liquid.

Answer: Evaporation
The vapor molecules coalesce to form the
liquid, and the attractive forces between
molecules increase in the formation of
liquid.

Answer: Condensation
It is the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of the liquid is equal to the
external pressure acting upon the surface
of the liquid.

Answer: Boiling Point

 The quantity of heat required to
evaporate a unit mass of a given liquid
at constant temperature and pressure.

Answer : Heat of vaporization

The change of state from vapor to
liquid state.

Answer: Heat of Condensation

The process used in the purification of liquids,
involving, heating a liquid to its boiling point and
then cooling the vapors in a condenser to form a
purified liquid.

Answer: Distillation
The property of the liquid that tends to
draw the surface molecules into the body
of the liquid and hence to reduce the
surface to a minimum.

Answer: Surface Tension

A property of liquid, it is the resistance
of liquid to flow.

Answer: Viscosity
Heat that must be supplied to convert a solid to
a liquid at constant temperature.

Answer: Heat of fusion

If the heat of fusion is expressed in calories
per gram or joules per kilogram, it is called
_______________. If it is expressed in
kilocalories per mole or kilojoules per
mole, it is called _______________.

Answer: Specific Heat of fusion

Molar heat of fusion

 The quantity of heat evolved (exothermic) in
going from the liquid state to the solid state of a
unit mass of liquid at the melting point of the
substance.

Answer: Heat of solidification

(crystallization)
It is the direct conversion of a solid to the vapor
without passing through the liquid state.

Answer: Sublimation
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER:
a. It is any variety of matter that is homogeneous and
with constant composition by mass.

It can be classified into two the elements and the

compounds

The simplest form of matter since it contains only one

kind of atom.
Answer: Pure substance

Element
Are pure substances that contain two or
more elements chemically combined in a
definite proportion by mass. These can be
classified into bases, acids, and salts.

Answer : Compounds
b. It is composed of two or more
distinct substances, which can be
separated by physical means.

Answer: Mixture
A solution that has a uniform
composition throughout.

Answer: Homogeneous mixture

 PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Properties which can be measured
without changing the identity and
composition of a substance

Answer: Physical Properties

Are properties that lead to changes in the
identity and composition of a substance.

Answer: Chemical Properties

These are properties that do not
depend on the size of the sample
involved.

Answer: Intensive Properties

These are properties that depend on the
size of the sample involved.

Answer: Extensive Properties

It the basic building block of matter. It is
the smallest particle of element.

It is the fundamental type of matter in

which all of the atoms in the material are
the same.

atom element
 ATOMIC BONDING
1. It has a low electronegativity, give up their
valence electron to form a sea of electrons
surrounding the atoms.

Answer: Metallic bond

2. Share electrons among two or more atoms.
For example, a silicon atom, which has a valence
of four, obtains eight electrons in its outer
energy shell by sharing its electrons with four
silicon atoms.

Covalent bond
3. when more than one type of atom is
present in a material, one atom may
donate its valence electrons to a different
atom, filling the outer energy shell of the
second atom.

Ionic bond
Join molecules or groups of atoms by weak
electrostatic attraction. Many plastics,
ceramics, water, and other molecules are
permanently polarized some portion of
the molecules are positively charged, while
other portions are negatively charged.

Van der Waals

 The equilibrium distance between
atoms, is caused by a balance between
repulsive and attractive forces.

Interatomic spacing
 occurs when the total energy of the
pair of atoms is at a minimum or when
no net force is acting to either attract
or repulse the atoms.

Equilibrium separation
THE SUB ATOMIC PARTICLES:

1. Electrons are negatively charged

particles of an atom
2. Protons are the positively charged
particles of an atom
3. Neutrons are the neutrally charged
particles of an atom.
 Charge Mass Location

Proton +1.6002 x 10-19 C 1.6726 x 10-27 kg Nucleus

Neutron 0 1.6726 x 10-27 kg Nucleus

Electron -1.6002 x 10-19 C 9.1094 x 10-31 kg Outside

ATOMIC NUMBER AND ATOMIC MASS
The atomic number of an element is the
number of protons that is contained in the
nucleus of each of its atoms.
Mass number or atomic weight is the
sum of the number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of the atom.
Number of neutrons = mass number -
atomic number
 ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic

number but different mass number
(different number of neutrons)
Isotopes No. of Protons No. of Electrons No. of Neutrons

17 17 18

17 17 20
Atoms of different atomic numbers but of the
same mass number are called ____

Answer: Isobars
A molecule is the smallest identifiable
sample of a substance.
Monoatomic molecules contain one atom
Diatomic molecules contain two atoms
Triatomic molecules contain three atoms
Polyatomic molecules describes any
molecules that contain more than one
atom.
IONS
An Ion is an atom of molecule, which has
lost or gained one or more electrons,
making it positively or negatively charged.
A positively charged ion is called cation.
A negatively charged ion is called anion.
A monoatomic ion is an ion consisting of
a single atom.
A radical ion is an ion that contains an
odd number of electrons and are mostly
very reactive and unstable,
A dianion is an ion which has two
negatively charges on it.
A polyatomic ion is an electrically
charged particles that consists of two or
more atoms linked together in much the
same way as in neutral molecule.
THE PERIODIC TABLE

IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII B IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA

H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Early Transition Elements Late Transition Elements
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI PB Bi At Rn
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Unn Uuu Uub [ ] Uuq [ ] Uuh [] Uuo
Transuranium Elements Other Metals
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Group 1A Alkali Metals

Group 2A Alkaline Earth Metals 5A nitrogen group
3B 7B Early transition elements 6A Chalcogen group
8B 2B Late transition elements 7A Halogens group
3A Boron Group 8A Noble gases
4A Carbon Group
The three Distinct Areas in the Periodic
Table:
Main Group Elements
Transition Group Elements
Inner Transition Group Elements
A period contains the elements in one
horizontal row of the periodic table.

A group contains the elements in one

column of the periodic table
CHEMICAL FORMULA

A chemical formula is a concise way of

expressing information about the atoms that
constitute a particular chemical compound.

Writing Chemical Formula The Criss Cross

Method
Ax+By- AyBx
Problems:
1. Silver has two isotopes. One has
60 neutrons while the other has
62. The atomic number of silver is
47. Write the symbols for these
two isotopes of silver.
2. Calculate the average atomic mass
of magnesium which has three
isotopes consisting of the following:
79% of , 10% of , and 11% of .
3. Chemical analysis of methyl
ether showed it to be composed of
52.17%C, 13.05%H, and 34.78% O.
Determine its empirical formula.
Also find the mass of the empirical
formula.
4. What is the mass to the nearest atomic
mass of an atom which contains 9 protons
and 10 neutrons?
5. Which group of the periodic table is known
as the halogens?
6. The subatomic particle with a
negative charge and mass of 9.1 x 10-31
kg is_________ .
7. Balance the following equations:
HClO4 + P4O10 H3PO4 + Cl2O7
Sb2S3 + HCl H3SbCl6 + H2S
Na2CO3 + C + N2 NaCN + CO
 8. A compound has the following
percent composition: Na = 19.3%,
S = 26.9%, O = 53.8%. Its molecular
weight is 238. What is its molecular
formula.
NAMING OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
1. Naming of Binary Compounds (contains
only two types of elements)
The names of all compounds containing only
two elements end in IDE. The positive ion is,
the name of the metal; the negative ion
consists of the stem plus the suffix IDE.
Stem of the most commonly used elements:
Oxygen --- Ox
Nitrogen ---- Nitr
Chlorine -- Chlor
Phosphorus --- Phosph
Carbon -- Carb
Fluoride ----- Fluor
Iodine --- Iod
Bromide ---- Brom
Selenium --- Selen
Sulfur ----- Sulf or sulfur
Example: CaO is Calcium Oxide
Nacl is Sodium Chloride
K2S is Potassium Sulfide
There are a few exceptions to this general
rule. The ammonium radical NH+ is
considered as a simple positive ion, so
NH4Cl is Ammonium Chloride
(NH4)2 is Ammonium Cyanide
There are two negative groups which are
considered special cases; the hydroxide radical,
OH- and the CN- are considered negative ions.
Thus
KCN is Potassium Cyanide
Mg(OH)2 is Magnesium Hydroxide
NH4Cn is Ammonium Cyanide
 If the metallic ion exists in two valence states,
the one with the lower valence has the ending
OUS while the one with the higher valence
has the ending IC. Under the new
international system, the valence is
designated by Roman numerals. Thus:

Fe+2 is the ferrous ion or iron (II)

Fe+3 is the ferric ion or iron (III)
Cu+1 is the cuprous ion or copper (I)
Cu+2 is the cupric ion or copper (II)
FeCl2 is ferrous chloride or iron (II) chloride
CuS is cupric sulfide or copper (II) sulfide
Cu2O is cuprous oxide or copper (I) oxide

If there is more than one compound formed by two non-

metallic elements, we generally use prefixes:
mono 1 tetra - 4
di 2 penta - 5
tri 3 .
P2O3 is phosphorus trioxide
Cl2O7 is chlorine heptoxide
CCl4
II. Naming of Acids Derived from Binary Compounds
Rule: For binary compounds with hydrogen as
the positive ion, place the term hydro at the front of
the stem of the negative ion, the letters IC at the end of
the stem and add the word ACID. Thus;
HBr (hydrogen bromide) is hydrobromic acid
H2S (hydrogen sulfide) is hydrosulfuric acid
HF
III. Naming of Acids whose negative group
contains oxygen
The highest valency acid is the IC acid in all
groups except group VII where it is the --- IC
acid. The highest valency acid is usually the one
best known or the most common one is
designated by adding the letters IC to the stem
plus the word acid. Thus, the most common acid
of sulfur is sulfuric acid; nitrogen, nitric acid.
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
H3PO4 - phosphoric acid
H2CO3
If the acid contains ONE LESS OXYGEN ATOM
than the most common one, the ending on the
stem is changed from IC to OUS

H2SO3 sulfurous acid

H3PO3 - phosphorous acid
HNO2 -
If the acid contains TWO LESS OXYGEN
ATOMS than the most common one, the
ending on the stem is changed from IC to
OUS and the prefix HYPO is added.

H3PO2 hypophosphorous acid

(HNO)2 hyponitrous acid
HClO
If the acid contains ONE MORE OXYGEN ATOM
than the most common one, the prefix PER is
added to the name of the most common acid.

HCLO4 is perchloric acid

IV. Naming of Salts Corresponding to
the Oxy Acids
For salts derived from the most
common acids (the IC acids) remove
the ending IC from the stem, add the
letters ATE and prefix the name of the
positive ion.
Na2SO4 (derived from H2SO4- sulfuric acid) is
sodium sulfate.

KNO3 ( derived from HNO3 - nitric acid) is

potassium nitrate.

Ca(ClO3)2
Salts derived from the OUS acids, drop
the ous ending from the stem, add the
leters ITE and prefix the name of the
positive ion (keeping the term hypo)
K2SO3 (derived from H2SO3 sulfurous
acid) is potassium sulfite

Al(NO2)3 (derived from HNO2 nitrous acid

) is aluminum nitrite
KCLO2
For salts derived from the hypo --- ous acids,
drop the ous ending from the stem, add the
letters ITE and prefix the name of the positive
ion (keeping the term hypo).
KClO (derived from HClO hypochlorous
acid) is potassium hypochlorite.
For salts derived from the per---ic acids, drop the IC
ending from the stem, add the letters ATE (Keeping the
per) and prefix the name of the positive ion.

KClO4 perchloric acid) is potassium perchlorate

V. Naming of salts containing more than one
positive ion
a) Salts containing 2 positive ions, one of
which is hydrogen. Construct the name as
follows:
1. Give the name of the positive ion
other than hydrogen.
2. Use the letter bi to indicate the
hydrogen ion.
3. Give the proper name for the
negative ion using the above rules.
NaHSO4 is sodium bisulfate
LiHSO3 is lithium bisulfate
Na2SO3
Ca(NO3)2
b) Phosphate salts containing more than 1
type of positive ion, one of which is
hydrogen

1. Give the name of the first positive ion

prefixing the terms mono or di to indicate
how many atoms of it are present.
2. Give the name of the second positive ion
prefixing the term mono or di to indicate how
many atoms of it are present.

3. Give the proper name for the negative ion

phosphate is this case.

NAH2PO4 is monosodium dihydrogen

phosphate
K2HPO4
 CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS
SOLUTE AND SOLVENT

In a solution of one substance in another substance,

the dissolved substance is called the solute. The
substance in which the solute is dissolved is called
the solvent. When the relative amount of one
substance in a solution is much greater than that of
the other, the substance present in greater amount
is generally regarded as the solvent. When the
relative amounts of the two substances are of the
same order of magnitude, it becomes difficult, in fact
arbitrarily, to specify which substance is the solvent.
CONCENTRATIONS EXPRESSED IN PHYSICAL
UNITS

When physical units are employed, the

concentrations of solutions are generally
expressed in one of the following ways.
a. by means of solute per unit volumes of solution
(e.g. 20 grams of KCl per liter of solution)

b. by the percentage composition, or the number of

mass units of solute per 100 mass units of
solution.
 CONCENTRATION EXPRESSED IN
CHEMICAL UNITS
MOLAR CONCENTRATION
The molar concentration (M) is the number of
moles of the solute contained in one liter of solution.
molar concentration of a solution
numberofmolesofsolut e
M= numberoflitersofsolution
NORMALITY
The normality of a solution (N) is the
number of gram-equivalent of the solute
contained in one liter of solution. The equivalent
weight is that fraction of the molecular weight
which corresponds to one defined unit of
chemical reaction. Equivalent weights are
determined as follows.
1. The defined unit of reaction for acids
and bases is the neutralization reaction
H+ +OH- H2O
The equivalent weight is the molecular
weight divided by the number of H+
furnished per molecule.
2. The equivalent weight of a base is that
fraction of the formula weight which
contains or can supply one OH-, or can
react with one H+.
Normality of a solution ,
numberofgram equivalentsofsolute
N
numberoflitersofsolution
MOLALITY
The molality of a solution is the
number of moles of the solute per
kilogram of solvent contained in a solution.
The molality (m) cannot be computed from
the molar concentration (M) unless the
density of the solution is known.
molality of a solution,
numberofmolesofsolut e
m= numberofkilog ramsofsolvent
MOLE FRACTION
The mole fraction (x) of any component in
a solution is defined as the number of moles (n)
of that component, divided by the total number
of moles of all components in the solution. The
sum of the mole fractions of all components of a
solution is 1.
Mole fraction of any component,

x= numberofmolesofthatcomponent
tota ln umberofmolesofallcom ponents
;

In two component solution,

n( solute)
x( solute)
n( solute) n( solvent )

n( solvent )
x( solvent )
n( solute) n( solvent )

Expressed as a percentage, mole

fraction is called mole percent.
COMPARISON OF THE CONCENTRATION
SCALE
The molar concentration and normality
scale are useful for volumetric experiments,
in which the amount of solute in a given
portion of solution is related to the measured
volume of solution.
The molality scale is useful for
experiments in which physical
measurements (as of freezing point,
boiling point, vapor pressure, etc.) are
made over a wide range of
temperatures.
The mole fraction scale finds in theoretical
work because many physical properties and
solutions are expressed most clearly in
terms of the relative numbers of solvent
and solute molecules. (The number of
moles of a substance is proportional to the
number of molecules.)
DILUTION PROBLEMS
The volumetric scales of concentration are
those, like molar concentration and normality, in
which the concentration is expressed as the
amount of solute per fixed volume of solution.
When the concentration is expressed on a
volumetric scale, the amount of solute contained
in a given volume of solution is equal to the
product of the volume and the concentration:

Amount of solute = volume x concentration

 If a solution is diluted, the volume is increased
and the concentration is decreased, but the
total amount of solute is constant. Hence, two
solutions of different concentrations but
containing the same amounts of solute will be
related to each other as follows;

Volume1 x Concentration1 = Volume2 x Concentration2 or

V1 C1 = V2 C2


Problems:
1.How many grams of a 5.0 % by weight NaCl
solution are necessary to yield 3.2 g NaCl?

2. Calculate the mass of Al2(SO4)3 18 H2O

needed to make 50 cm3 of an aqueous
solution of strength 40 mg Al +3 per cm3.
Atomic weight of Al = 27; formula wt.
Al2(SO4)3 18 H2O = 666
1.What is the molar concentration of a
solution containing 16.0 g CH3OH in 200 cm3
of solution? Molecular weight of CH3OH is
32.0
2.How much (NH4)2SO4 is required to
prepare 400 cm3 of M/4 solution? (The
notation M/4 is sometimes used in place of
M)
3. What is the molality of a solution which
contains 20.0 g of cane sugar, C12H22O11,
dissolved in 125 g of water? Molecular weight of
C12H22O11 is 342.

4. Determine the mole fractions of both

substances in a solution containing 36.0 g of
water and 46 g of glycerin, C3H5(OH)3. Molecular
weight of C3H5(OH)3 is 92; of H2O is 18.0.
5. Calculate the normality of each of the
following solutions: a) 7.88 g of HNO3 per
liter of solution, b) 26.5 g of Na2CO3 per
liter of solution (if acidified to form CO2)

6. How many kilograms of wet NaOH

containing 12% water are required to
prepare 60 L of 0.50 N solution?
7. What volumes of N/2 and of N/10 HCl
must be mixed to give 2 L of N/5 HCl?

8. How many cubic centimeters of

concentrated sulfuric acid, of density 1.84
g/cm3 and containing 98% H2SO4 by
weight, should be taken to make a) one
liter of normal solution, b) one liter of 3.00
N solution, c) 200 cm3 of 0.500 N solution?
 MEASUREMENT OF GASES
PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force acting
normally on a unit area of surface.

forceactingperpendic ulartoanarea
pressure
areaoverwhichtheforceisdistrib uted
Pressure = height x density of fluid x
acceleration of gravity
STANDARD CONDITIONS ( S. T. P.)

Standard conditions denotes a

temperature of 00C ( 273.15 0K)
and a normal atmospheric
pressure of 1 atmosphere.
At S. T. P.; P = 1 atm; V = 22.415 li.;
n = 1 mole; T = 2730K or 4600 F
GAS LAWS
At sufficiently low pressures
and sufficiently high temperatures,
all gases have been found to obey
three simple laws. These laws
relate the volume of a gas to the
pressure and temperature.
BOYLES LAW
When the temperature is kept
constant, the volume of a given mass
of an ideal gas varies inversely with the
pressure to which the gas is subjected.

P1V1 = P2V2
CHARLES LAW
At constant pressure, the
volume of a given mass of gas varies
directly with the absolute
temperature.
V1 V2

T1 T1

where T1 and T2 denote the absolute temperatures of the gas at

the two states being compared.
GAY-LUSSACS LAW
At constant volume, the
pressure of a given mass of gas
varies directly with the absolute
temperature .

P1 P2

T1 T2
COMBINED GAS LAW
Any two of the above three gas
laws can be employed to derive a law
which applies to all possible
combinations of changes.

P1V1 P2V2

T1 T2
DENSITY OF AN IDEAL GAS
As the volume of a given mass of gas
increase, the mass per unit volume ( i.e.
density) decreases proportionately.

Therefore the density (d) of a gas varies

inversely with its volume. For an ideal gas, the
combined gas law then gives

V1 T P
d 2 d1 d1 1 2
V2 T2 P1
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL
PRESSURES
The partial pressure of a component
of a gas mixture is the pressure which the
component
would exert if it alone occupied the entire
volume.
According to Daltons law, the total pressure
of a gaseous mixture is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures of the components.

Pt = p1 + p2 + p3 +
Problems:
1. Calculate the difference in
pressure between the top and
bottom of a vessel exactly 76 cm
0
deep when filled at 25 C with a)
water, b) mercury. Density of
mercury at 250C is 13.53 g/cm3; of
water, 0.997 g/cm3.
2. How high a column of air would be
necessary to cause the barometer to
read 76 cm of mercury, if the
atmosphere were of uniform density
1.2 kg/m3? The density of mercury is
13.6 x 103 kg/ m3.
3. A mass of oxygen occupies 5.00L
under a pressure of 740 torr.
Determine the volume of the same
mass of gas at standard pressure,
the temperature remaining
constant.
4. A mass of neon occupies 200 cm3 at
100 0C. Find its volume at 0 0C, the
pressure remaining constant.
5. A steel tank contains carbon
dioxide at 27 0C and a pressure of
12.0 atm. Determine the internal
gas pressure when the tank and its
contents are heated to 100 0C.
6. The volume of a quantity of sulfur
dioxide at 18 0C and 1500 torr is 5.0
ft3. Calculate its volume at S. T. P.

7. The density of oxygen is 1.43 g/L at

S. T. P. Determine the density of
oxygen at 170C and 700 torr.
8. A mixture of gases at 760 torr
contains 65.0% nitrogen, 15.0%
oxygen, 20.0% carbon dioxide by
volume. What is the partial pressure of
each gas in torr?
9. A 200 mL flask contained oxygen at
200 torr, and a 300 mL flask contained
nitrogen at 100 torr. The flasks were
then connected so that each gas filled
their combined volumes. Assuming no
change in temperature, what was the
partial pressure of each gas in the final
mixture and what was the total
pressure?
10. In a gas mixture at 20 0C the
partial pressures of the components
are: hydrogen, 200 torr; carbon
dioxide, 150 torr; methane, 320
torr; ethylene, 105 torr. What are
the total pressure of the mixture
and the volume percent of
hydrogen?