Department of Civil Engineering

Institute of Technology,
Nirma University
B.Tech. in Civil Engineering, Semester-V
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING I
Course Code: CL504
Course Instructors
Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath
Prof. Hemang Dalwadi
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING An Introduction
Main domains:
Highway Cars, Buses, Trucks, Motor Cycle etc
Railway Trains only
Waterway Ships, Boats
Air Airplane, Choppers
Pipeline
Space

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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Tasks of a Transport Engineer:

Planning Feasibility Studies, Planning, Forecasting, Basic Surveys, Cost

Functional design Alignment, Detailed Surveys, Design

Operation and

Management of facilities Traffic Operation, One ways, signals, accident

control, awareness, education, speed limits, parking, intersections etc.
Objective of Transportation Engineering:
Ensuring Safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.

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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Importance of Transportation Engineering:
Importance of transportation engineering within the civil engineering
profession:
Can be judged by the number of divisions in ASCE (American Society of
Civil Engineers) that are directly related to transportation
Six divisions (Aerospace; Air Transportation; Highway; Pipeline;
Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean; and Urban Transportation)
Represents one-third of the total 18 technical divisions within the ASCE
(2000)

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University

 UNIT -1 INTRODUCTION TO RAILWAYS
Outline
History and development
Permanent way
Gauges, advantages and disadvantages, Uniformity
Alignment
Track Specifications

Pre-requisite Reading:
A brief history of Indian railways before Independence, After Independence and
now
Comparison of Railways with other modes of Transportation
Railway Terminologies
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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
First Railway?

600 BC: Rutway Diolkos in ancient Greek and Roman times

Rutway: Trackway Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth

Granite road with grooved tracks in which large wooden flatbed cars
carrying ships and their cargo were pulled by slaves or animal

Length: 6 and 8.5 km

Width: 1.5 m (current: 1.435 m)

Regular and frequent service till 900 AD

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 6

Steam Engines

1804: First steam locomotive railway - Penydarren - built by Trevithick,

used to haul iron in Wales

1814: George Stephenson constructs his first locomotive

1829: George and Robert Stephenson's locomotive, The Rocket, sets a

speed record of 47 km/h (29 mph), Liverpool

1857: First steel rails used in Britain

1863: First underground railway, the 4 mile (6.2 km) Metropolitan

Railway opened in London. It was powered by adapted steam engines

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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Electricity propelled
1879 First electric railway demonstrated at the Berlin Trades Fair
1890 First electric London Underground railway (subway) opened in
Londonall other subway systems soon followed suit.

Diesel locomotives
1913 First diesel powered railcar enters service in Sweden

Diesel Electric locomotive

1924 First diesel-electric locomotive built in Soviet Union (USSR)
Dominant type of locomotive in the world today.
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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Railroads: A Timeline:
Manual/ horse drawn railways
1550: Hand propelled tubs known as hunds in Germany
1603: first recorded above ground early railway/wagon way
1798: Lake Lock Railroad, the world's first public railway (carried only
coal)
1803: The first public passenger railway, the Surrey Iron Railway opens
in south London

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 9

History and Development of Indian Railroads: (Pre
Independence)
1832 first proposed in Madras (Madras Bangalore)

1836-survey carried out

1840- Lord Hardinge decides to support building of railwaysirrespective

of commercial viability

1845-two companies EIR and GIPR were formed and started operations

April 16 1853- Bombay Thane, the first passenger train run over a
distance of 32 kms.

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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
 15 august 1854 Howrah to Hoogly (39 kms)

The British government encouraged the setting up of railways by

private investors under a scheme that would guarantee an annual
return of 5% during the initial years of operation. Once completed,
the company would be passed under government ownership, but
would be operated by the company that built them.

1862-Howrah Banaras

1870- East and west network linked 6400 kms and 95 million
pounds investment
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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
 By 1880 the network had a route of about 14,500 km (9,000 miles),
mostly radiating inward from the three major port cities of Bombay,
Madras and Calcutta.

By 1895, India had started building its own locomotives, and in 1896
sent engineers and locomotives to help build the Ugandan railways .

In 1900, the GIPR became a government owned company. The network

spread to modern day states of Assam, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh
and soon various independent kingdoms began to have their own rail
systems.

1901 railway board constituted

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 12
 1907 most companies taken over by government - first electric
locomotive

1920 61000 km network - independent railway budget

1925 Govt. took over management of EIR and GIPR

1937 Burma separated from India as a result 3200km of railroad was

curtailed

1940-44 impact of second world war

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 13

History of Indian Railroads: (Post Independence) :
1946 all company railways taken over by government. 40% railways in
Pakistan

42 separate systems (32 princely state railways); 55000 kmsmulti gauge

1950 - Production of steam locomotives at Chittaranjan Locomotive Works

1952 Railway staff college, Baroda

1951- reorganization and merger of all company railways6 zones

1952BG standard, indigenous production units; electrification

1955 Indian Railway Institute for Civil Engineering, Pune Set up.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 14

 1957 Indian Railway Institute for Signal and Telecommunication was
set up at Secunderabad
1957 Railway Protection Force was constitutes
1957 Research Design and Standards Organization was Started (RDSO)
at Lucknow.
1969 New Delhi- Howrah Rajdhani Express running at speed of
120kmph was introduced.
1986-steam phased out

1995 - Metro built in Calcutta

1998-konkan railway system becomes fully operational

Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engg, Nirma University 15

 1999 Darjeeling Himalayan Railway declared World Heritage site by
UNESCO

1999 - Guiness record for Delhi main station equipped with worlds
largest route relay interlocking system.

2003 IR completes 150 years in existence.

2014-2015 - It is now one of the world's largest railway networks

comprising 115000kmof track over a route of 65,436 km and 7,172
stations.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 16

 In 201314, IR carried 8.425 billion passengers annually or more than 23
million passengers daily (roughly half of which were suburban
passengers) and 1050.18 million tons of freight in the year. In 20132014
Indian Railways had revenues of 1441.67 billion which consists of 940.0
billion from freight and 375.0 billion from passengers tickets

Assignment :
1. Write a note on railway budget and all the five year plans for
Indian Railways. For each five year plan you will be writing five
important points or salient features.
2. Briefly explain railway budget 2015.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 17

Indian Railways: Organizational Overview:
The Ministry of Railways under the GOI controls Indian Railways.

The Ministry is headed by Union Cabinet Minister who is generally

supported by a Minister of State

For administrative convenience IR is primarily divided into 16 zones.

These railway zones are headed by their respective General Managers

who in turn report to the railway board.

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Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University

19
 Sl. Name of the Route length
Abbr. Headquarters Divisions
No Railway zone (in Km)

Mumbai, Bhusawal,
1. Central Railway CR 3905 Mumbai
Pune, Solapur, Nagpur

Danapur, Dhanbad, Mu
East Central
2. ECR 3628 Hajipur ghalsarai, Samastipur,
Railway
Sonpur

East Coast Khurda Road,

3. ECoR 2572 Bhubaneswar
Railway Sambalpur, Waltair

Howrah, Sealdah, Asans

4. Eastern Railway ER 2414 Kolkata
ol, Malda

North Central
5. NCR 3151 Allahabad Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi
Railway

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 20

 North Eastern
6. NER 3667 Gorakhpur Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi
Railway
North Western
7. NWR 5459 Jaipur Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur
Railway

Northeast Alipurduar, Katihar, Rangia, Lumding,

8. NFR 3907 Guwahati
Frontier Railway Tinsukia

Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow,

9. Northern Railway NR 6968 Delhi
Moradabad

Secunderabad,
South Central
10. SCR 5803 Secunderabad Vijayawada, Hyderabad, Guntakal,
Railway
Guntur, Nanded

South East
11. SECR 2447 Bilaspur Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur
Central Railway

South Eastern
12. SER 2631 Kolkata Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi
Railway
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South Western
13. SWR 3177 Hubli Hubli, Bangalore, Mysore
Railway
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
 Name of the Route length
Sl. No Abbr. Headquarters Divisions
Railway zone (in Km)

Chennai, Tiruchirappalli,
Madurai,
14. Southern Railway SR 5098 Chennai
Palakkad, Salem,
Thiruvananthapuram

15. West Central Railway WCR 2965 Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota

Mumbai
Central, Ratlam, Ahmeda
16. Western Railway WR 6182 Mumbai
bad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar,
Vadodara

17. Konkan Railway KR 26 Roha

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 22

The Quest for Speed:
1957 Japan sets narrow gauge world speed record of 145 km/h (90mph)
with Odakyu 3000 series SE Romance car
1964 Bullet Train service introduced in Japan, between Tokyo and
Osaka. Trains average speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph) due to congested
shared urban tracks, with top speeds of 210 km/h
2003 Heavily modified train of France's TGV had beaten its original world
record when it travelled 320 km/h
2004 The Shanghai Maglev Train or Shanghai Trans-rapid being the first
commercial high-speed maglev line in the world the top operational
commercial speed of this train is 431 km/h (268 mph), making it the
world's fastest train in regular commercial services since its opening.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 23
Maglev Principle:
Opposite poles on magnets keep train above track
Train is propelled by an electro-magnetic system in the sides of the "guideway" instead
of on-board
Engine Trains float over a guideway without any contact between train and rail
resulting zero frictional loss

Classification of Railway System:

Intercity
Long distance - Not very frequent
Urban
Short haul Frequent - Frequency as high as every 3 mins
Sub-urban
Suburb to main city
Mostly caters to commuting traffic
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 24
 Characteristics Railway Transport Highway transport

1.Tractive Resistance Tractive resistance of steel wheel on a steel The tractive resistance of pneumatic tire on
rail is less compared to pneumatic type on highway is 5 to 6 times greater than that of
highways (1/5th to 1/6th ) railway vehicles

2.Load Handling Railways can handle heavier loads at high Load handling capacity of road vehicles are
Capacity speeds less
3. Right of Entry Railway track is rigid and well defined hence Roads are free and flexible hence everyone
the right of entry is not free to all except for has the right to ingress or egress
the trains on schedule

4.Operational Controls Railways require a block system of signaling No such controls are required in road
and interlocking for safe and efficient transport.
movement of trains as per schedule

5. Gradient To sustain heavier loads at high speeds, the Steeper gradients as compared to railway
gradients should be minimum track can be provided

6. Construction and Cost of construction and maintenance is Its cost of construction and maintenance is
Maintenance higher than roads comparatively less

7. Accident rate/ Safety Few accidents Large no. of accidents occur.

Advantages of Railways:
a. Political Advantages:
1. Railways have united people of different castes, religions, costumes and
traditions.
2. With adequate network of railway the central administration has
become more easy and efficient
3. Railways has helped the mass migration of population
4. The role of railways during emergency in mobilizing troops and war
equipment has been very significant
5. Railways have contributed towards development of national mentality
in the minds of people.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 26
b. Social Advantages:
1. The feelings of isolation has been removed from the inhabitants of the
Indian Villages.

2. Railways have united people of different castes, religions, costumes

and traditions. (By travelling together)

3. The social outlook of the masses has been broadened through railway
journeys.

4. Railways has made it easier to reach places of religious importance.

5. Railways provide a safe mode of transport for the country.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 27

c. Economic advantages:
1. Mobility of people have increased hence congested areas can be
relieved of congestion and sparsely populated areas can be developed.
2. Mobility of labor has contributed to industrial development.
3. During famines railways has played a vital role in transportation of
food and clothing to affected areas.
4. Growth of Industries has been promoted due to transportation of raw
materials through railways
5. Railways provide employment to millions of people solving
unemployment

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 28

Techno - Economic Advantage:
1. Cost saving in transportation of long haul bulk traffic.

2. Energy Efficiency (railways consume one seventh of fuel used by the

road sector.

3. Environment friendliness

4. Higher safety (fatal accidents one-tenth of road sector in India)

5. Efficient Land use and ease in capacity expansion.

6. IR is a well-established organization with a large pool of skilled and

trained personnel.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 29
Weaknesses of Indian Railways
(a) A large portion of the railways infrastructure is over aged, and in
urgent need of replacement or rehabilitation. This includes track, motive
power and rolling stock, signaling, operational, and maintenance
equipment.
(b) In certain parts of the infrastructure, the technology is 2025 years
behind some of the developed railway systems. Consequently the
productivity levels are comparatively low.
(c) Indian Railways has a large force of unskilled manpower. The training
facilities need augmentation and modernization.
(d) A persistent resource constraint in the past has adversely affected the
Railways development.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 30
(e) Indian Railways carries a substantial social burden in the form of
continued operation of un-remunerative branch lines, subsidies on
passenger and suburban travel, and even freight subsidy on certain
commodities.
(f) In certain areas, pilferage and vandalism seriously affect operational
efficiency.
(g) Railways are not suited for carriage of small quantities of freight
particularly over short distances.
(h) Heavy investments are needed to build up railway transport capacity
and the gestation periods are long.
(i) Transport capacity is volatile and cannot be compensated if not utilized
continuously.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 31
Social Costs of Indian Railways
Indian Railways is a public utility undertaking of the Government of
India.
They do not have the freedom to adjust their freight and fare rates
corresponding to the increase in the prices of the various inputs used by
them.
They also carry certain essential commodities(sugarcane, livestock,
paper, edible oil etc), as also passenger traffic (senior citizens, defence
personnel, national awardees etc) at rates which do not even cover their
cost of movement.
In addition, traffic bound for flood-affected and drought hit areas is
carried at concessional rates.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 32
 Certain non-remunerative branch lines are also being operated purely in
public interest.
Such social obligations, which Indian Railways has carried out all along,
are not usually borne by purely commercial undertakings.
Losses incurred on this account are termed Social Service Obligation.

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 RAILWAY TRACK (PERMANENT WAY)
The following are the component parts of a permanent way or a railway
track :-

Formation or sub grade

Ballast

Sleepers

Rails

Fixtures and fastenings.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 34

Typical c/s of a Permanent Way

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 35

36
The Permanent Way:
The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and
subgrade is called the railway track or the permanent way.

In a permanent way, the rails are joined in series by fish plates and
bolts and they are fixed to sleepers by different types of fastenings.

The sleepers properly spaced resting on ballast, are suitably packed and
boxed with ballast.

The layer of ballast rests on the prepared subgrade called the formation.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 37

 Sometimes sub-ballast of murum are also provided below the ballast to
provide better stability and drainage.

The rails act as girders to transmit wheel load to sleepers. The sleepers
hold the rails in proper position with respect to proper tilt, gauge and
level. They transmit the load from the rails to ballast.

The ballast distributes the load over formation and holds the sleepers in
position.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 38

Requirements of an ideal Permanent Way:
Permanent way is regarded to be semi-elastic in nature.
There is possibility of track getting disturbed by the moving wheel
loads.
The track should, therefore be constructed and maintained keeping the
requirements of a permanent way, in view so as to achieve higher speed
and better riding qualities with less future maintenance.
Following are some of the basic requirements of a permanent way:
Uniformity of Gauge - The gauge of the permanent way should be
uniform, correct and it should not get altered with time.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 39

 Level The rails should be in proper level. In straight portion of the
track two rails must be at same level. On curves, the outer level should
have proper super elevation. There should be proper transition at the
junction of straight and a curve.
Gradient - The gradient should be uniform and gentle as possible. Any
change of gradient should be provided with a smooth vertical curve, to
give smooth riding quality.
The track should be resilient and elastic to absorb shocks and
vibrations of impacts between the rails and the moving wheel loads of a
train.
The drainage system must be perfect to enhance safety and durability
of the track.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 40
 The permanent way should be sufficiently strong against lateral forces.

The tractive resistance of the track should be minimum.

The design of the permanent way should be such that the load of the
train is uniformly distributed on both the rails so as to prevent
unequal settlement of the track.

All the components parts such as rails, sleepers, ballast, fixtures and
fastenings, etc. should satisfy the design requirements.

It should be constructed such that repairs and renewals of any of its

portion can be carried out without any difficulty.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 41

42
Railway Track Gauge:
The Gauge of a track in India is measured as the clear horizontal
distance between the inner running or the gauge faces of the two rails.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 43

TYPES OF GAUGES PREVALENT IN INDIA
The different gauges prevalent in India are of the following:

Broad gauge (1676 mm) Nearly 80 % of track has been laid to this
gauge.

Metre gauge (1000 mm) Around 10 - 15%

Narrow gauge (762 mm & 610 mm) 6%

Standard Guage (1435mm) Used only in Delhi, Bangalore & Mumbai

metro.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 44

 45
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
BROAD GAUGE:
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is 1676mm the gauge is called Broad
Gauge (B.G)
This gauge is also known as standard gauge of India and is the
broadest gauge of the world.
The Other countries using the Broad Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Sri Lanka, Brazil, Argentina etc. Nearly 80% Indias railway tracks
have been laid to this gauge.
Broad Gauge is the most widely used rail gauge in India with
approximately 108,000 km (67,000 mi) of track length and 60,000 km
(37,282 mi) of route length in 2014.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 46
Suitability of Broad Gauge Tracks:
Broad gauge is suitable under the following Conditions:

When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.

When the prospects of revenue are very bright.

This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain areas which are
densely populated i.e. for routes of maximum traffic, intensities and at
places which are centers of industry and commerce.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 47

METER GAUGE :
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is 1000mm, the gauge is known as Meter
Gauge
The other countries using Meter gauge are France, Switzerland,
Argentina, etc.
40% of Indias railway tracks had been laid to this gauge upon which
10% to 15% of this gauge has not been upgraded.
In some regions, Metre Gauge is common for historical reasons and
consists of about 4,000 km (2,485 mi) of route length, down from more
than 20,000 km (12,427 mi) in late 1970s.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 48

Suitability of Meter Gauge Tracks:

When the funds available for the railway project are inadequate.

When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.

This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in under-developed areas and in
interior areas where traffic intensity is small and prospects for future
development are not very bright.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 49

NARROW GAUGE
When the clear horizontal distance between the inner faces of two
parallel rails forming a track is either 762mm or 610mm, the gauge is
Known As Narrow Gauge.
Countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc.
Roughly 6 - 10% of Indias railway tracks have been laid to this gauge.
Narrow gauges are present on a few routes lying in hilly terrains and in
some private railways because of cost considerations. Narrow gauges
covered less than 2,000 km (1,243 mi) route length in 2014.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 50

Suitability of Narrow Gauge Tracks:
When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited due to
the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow bridges and
tunnels
When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly and very thinly populated areas.
The narrow gauge (feeder gauge) is commonly used for feeding raw
materials to big government manufacturing concerns as well as to
private factories such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 51

CHOICE OF GAUGE /SELECTION OF GAUGE
The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge
and all new railway lines are constructed to adhere to the standard
gauge.
However, the following factors theoretically influence the choice of the
gauge:
Cost Considerations
Traffic Considerations
Physical Features of the Country
Uniformity of Gauge
Speed of Movement
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 52
Cost Considerations
There is only a marginal increase in the cost of the track if a wider
gauge is adopted. In this connection, the following points are important.
(a) There is a proportional increase in the cost of acquisition of land,
earthwork, rails, sleepers, ballast, and other track items when
constructing a wider gauge.
(b) The cost of building bridges, culverts, and tunnels increases only
marginally due to a wider gauge.
(c) The cost of constructing station buildings, platforms, staff quarters,
level crossings, signals, etc. associated with the railway network is more
or less the same for all gauges.
(d) The cost of rolling stock is independent of the gauge of the track for
carrying the same volume of traffic.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 53
Traffic Considerations
The volume of traffic depends upon the size of wagons and the speed and
hauling capacity of the train.
(a) As a wider gauge can carry larger wagons and coaches, it can
theoretically carry more traffic.
(b) A wider gauge has a greater potential at higher speeds, because speed
is a function of the diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited by the
width of the gauge.
(c) The type of traction and signaling equipment required are independent
of the gauge.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 54

Physical Features of the Country:

It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a narrow

gauge as compared to a wider gauge.

Use of Narrow Gauge is warranted in hilly regions where broad and

meter gauges are not possible due to steep gradients and sharp curves.

In plains also where high speed is not required and traffic is light N.G is
a right choice.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 55

Speed of Movement:

Speed of the train is almost proportional to the gauge.

Speed is the function of diameter of the wheel, which in turn is limited

by the gauge. The wheel diameter is generally 0.75 times that of the
gauge.

Lower speed discourages customers so as to maintain higher speeds

B.G is preferred.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 56

 UNIFORMITY OF GAUGE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Advantages:
1. The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy,
and efficient operation of trains
2. Therefore a single gauge should be adopted irrespective of the minor
advantages of a wider gauge and the few limitations of a narrower
gauge.
3. The delay, cost and hardship in trans-shipping passengers and
goods from the vehicles of one gauge to another is avoided.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 57

4. As the transhipping is not required there is no much breakage of
goods.
5. Difficulties in loading and unloading are avoided and labour expenses
are avoided.
6. Possibility of thefts and misplacements, while changing from one
vehicle to another is avoided.
7. Large sheds to store goods are not required.
8. Labour strikes, etc. do not affect the service and operations.
9. During military movement no time is wasted in changing personnel
from one vehicle to another if gauge is uniform.
10. Locomotives can be effectively used on all tracks if a uniform gauge is
adopted. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 58
Problems caused by the change of Gauge:
Inconvenience to passengers
1. Passengers have to change the train along with their luggage.

2. Climbing stairs and crossing bridges

3. Uncertainty and delay in reaching the destination

4. Porters harassment

Difficulty in transhipment of goods

Inefficient use of rolling stock

Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 59
 Difficulties in balanced economic growth (industries set up near
M.G/N.G stations cannot send their goods economically and efficiently
to areas being served by B.G stations)
Difficulties in future gauge conversion projects (widening
embankments, bridges, tunnels and replacement of the whole track)

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 60

Track Specification for Indian Railways:
1. Most of the railway lines on Indian Railways are single lines, generally
with a formation 6.10 m (20 ft) wide for broad gauge and 4.88 m (16 ft)
wide for metre gauge & 3.7 m for narrow gauge.

2. The formation is generally stable except in areas where clayey soil or

other types of shrinkable soils are found.

3. Most of the track is straight except for 16% of the track on BG and
MG and 20% of the track on NG, which is on curves.

4. The maximum degree of curvature permissible is 10 on the broad

gauge, 16 on the metre gauge, and 40 on the narrow gauge.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 61
5. The ballast used most often is broken stone ballast, but in some
areas, sand, moorum, and coal ash have also been used.
6. About 20 cm to 30 cm (8" to 12") cushion of ballast is normally
provided below the sleepers to transfer the load evenly and to impart
the necessary resilience to the track.
7. The different materials used to construct sleepers are wood (31%),
cast iron (42%), and steel (27%).
8. Experience has shown that cast iron sleepers are not suitable for
high-density routes.
9. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers have recently been developed by Indian
Railways and are proposed to be progressively laid on group A and B
routes.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 62
10. Sleepers are laid to various sleeper densities varying from (M + 7) to
(M + 4) or 1540 per km to 1310 per km depending upon the weight
and volume of traffic.
11. The rails standardized for Indian Railways are 60 kg and 52 kg for
BG. Rails are normally rolled in 13 m (42 ft) lengths for BG lines.
12. The rails are welded together to form longer rails and are laid
progressively on the track in order to reduce maintenance costs and
noise levels and thereby provide more comfortable travel.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 63

 Group A B C D E

160 130 Sub-urban 100 <100 kmph

Speed up to (in kmph)
Type of Rail section (in kg/m)

>20GMT 60 60 60 60 -

20 - 10 GMT 52 52 52 52 52

<10 GMT 52 52 52 52 52

Sleeper density (in No's per 1660 1660/1540 1660/1540 1660/1540 1540/1310
km) concrete sleeper/PSC
300 300/250 300 300/200 300/200
Ballast Cushion (in mm)

GMT stands for gross million tonnes per km/annum.

60-kg rails are to be used on all routes identified for carrying 22 t axle load wagons.
Group C has no specified speed limit but the trains on suburbs are slow 64
 Minimum width of
Minimum width of cutting
embankment
Gauge
Remarks
Single Double Single Double

Broad Gauge
610 cm 1082 cm 549 cm 1021 cm
(B.G)

122 cm extra width is

to be provided in case
of the formation in
Metre Gauge cutting for the side
488 cm 884 cm 427 cm 827 cm
(M.G) drains.

Narrow
370 cm 732 cm 335 cm 701 cm
Gauge (N.G) 65
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 66
67
 WHEEL ARRANGEMENTS
Coning of Wheels:
The tread of the wheels of a railway vehicle is not made flat, but sloped
like a cone in order to enable the vehicle to move smoothly on curves as
well as on straight tracks.
The wheels are generally centrally aligned on a straight and level surface
with uniform gauge, and the circumference of the treads of the inner
and outer wheels are equal as can be seen in the fig
The coning of wheels helps to keep the vehicle centrally aligned on a
straight and level track also.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 68

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 69
 The problem, however, arises in the case of a curve, when the outer
wheel has to negotiate more distance on the curve as compared to the
inner wheel.
Due to the action of centrifugal force on a curve, the vehicle tends to
move out.
To avoid this the circumference of the tread of the outer wheel is made
greater than that of the inner wheel.
This helps the outer wheel to travel a longer distance than the inner
wheel.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 70

 Slight irregularities in the track do occur as a result of moving loads and
the the weather.
The wheels, therefore, move from side to side and therefore the vehicles
sway.
Due to the coning of wheels, this side movement results in the tread
circumference of one wheel increasing over the other.
As both the wheels have to traverse the same distance, this causes one
wheel to slide. Due to the resistance caused by the sliding, any further
side movement is prevented.
If there was no coning, the side movement would have continued and
the flange of the wheel would have come in contact with the side of the
rail, causing jerks and making the ride uncomfortable.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 71
Coning of wheels causes wear and tear due to the slipping action. It is,
however,useful as
(a) it helps the vehicle to negotiate a curve smoothly,
(b) it provides a smooth ride, and
(c) it reduces the wear and tear of the wheel flanges.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 72

Coning wheels has the following disadvantages (Tilting of RAILS)
The pressure of the horizontal component near the inner edge of the rail
has a tendency to wear the rail quickly.
The horizontal components tend to turn the rail outwardly and hence
the gauge is widened sometimes.
If no base plates are provided, sleepers under the outer edge of the rails
are damaged.
Lateral bending stresses are also created due to eccentric loading of
rails.
In order to minimize the above mentioned disadvantages the tilting of
rails is done. i.e. the rails are not laid flat but tilted inwards by using
inclined base plates sloped at 1 in 20 which is also the slope of coned
surface of wheels.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 73
 BALLAST
Definition: The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or
any other granular material placed and packed below and around
sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation. It
provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to the track.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 74

Functions of Ballast
The ballast serves the following functions in a railway track.

1. Provides a level and hard bed for the sleepers to rest on.

2. Holds the sleepers in position during the passage of trains.

3. Transfers and distributes load from the sleepers to a large area of the
formation.

4. Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.

5. Provides the necessary resistance to the track for longitudinal and

lateral stability.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 75
6. Provides effective drainage to the track.

7. Provides an effective means of maintaining the level and alignment of

the track.

8. To prevent the growth of weeds inside the track.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 76

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BALLAST

(i) It should have sufficient strength to resist crushing under heavy loads
of moving trains.

(ii) It should be durable enough to resist abrasion and weathering action.

(iii) It should be cubical and have rough and angular surface so as to

provide good lateral and longitudinal stability to the sleepers.

(iv) It should have good workability so that it can be easily spread of

formation.

(v) It should be cheaply available in sufficient quantity near and along the
track.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 77
(vi) It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to its crushing to

powder under wheel loads.

(vii) It should allow for easy and quick drainage of the track.

(viii) It should not have any chemical action on metal sleepers and rails.

(ix) It should resist both attrition and abrasion.

(x) It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 78

Sizes of Ballast
Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom sleepers
such as concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5") ballasts were
specified for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and trough sleepers.
Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2") ballasts have been adopted
universally for all type of sleepers.
As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are subjected to
heavy blows of moving loads and are maintained to a higher degree of
precision.
A small sized, 25-mm (1") ballast is, therefore, preferable because of its
fineness for slight adjustments, better compaction, and increased
frictional area of the ballast.
79
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
TYPES OF BALLAST
In India, the following materials are used as ballast.
(i) Broken stone.
(ii) Gravel
(iii) Sand
(iv) Ashes or cinders
(v) Kankar
(vi) Moorum
(vii) Blast furnace slag
(viii) Brick ballast
(ix) Selected earth Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 80
BROKEN STONE BALLAST
This is the best type of ballast as it possesses all the characteristics of a
good ballast.
It holds the track to correct alignment and gradient due to its high
interlocking action.
The stones which are non porous, hard and do not flake on breaking
should be used.
Igneous rocks such as granite, quartzite and trap make excellent
ballast.
This type of ballast is used for high speed tracks.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 81

ADVANTAGES
a. It is hard and resist crushing under heavy loads.
b. It has angular and rough surface and hence gives more stability to the
sleepers.
c. Its drainage property is excellent.

DISADVANTAGES
(a) It is expensive.
(b) It is not so easily available.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 82

GRAVEL
Gravel is the second best material for ballast.
This is obtained either from river beds or from gravel pits and has
smooth rounded fragments.
Gravel obtained from pits usually contains earth which should be
removed by washing.
Gravel obtained from river beds is screened and required size gravel is
used.
Larger size gravels are broken into required size.
Round edges gravels are broken to increase their interlocking action.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 83

ADVANTAGES
(a) Gravel is cheaper than stone ballast.
(b) The drainage property of gravel excellent.
(c) It holds the track to correct alignment and gradient.
(d) It is easy to use gravel ballast than stone ballast at certain places
where formation is unstable.
DISADVANTAGES
(a) It requires screening before use due to large variation in size.
(b) Gravel obtained from pits requires washing.
(c) Due to round faces the packing under sleepers is loose.
(d) Gravel easily roll down due to vibrations.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 84
SAND
Sand is reasonably a good material for the ballast.
Coarse sand is generally preferred to fine sand for ballast.
This type of ballast is suitable for packing pot sleepers. It is used only
on unimportant tracks.
Advantages
(a) It is a cheap material.
(b) It is available in large quantities.
(c) It has good drainage properties.
(d) Sand ballast produces a silent track.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 85

DISADVANTAGES (Sand Ballast)
(a) It has no stability and gets disturbed by the vibrations caused by
moving train.
(b) It causes wear of rails and other components
MOORUM BALLAST
The decomposition of laterite results in the formation of moorum.
It is red, and sometimes yellow, in colour.
The moorum ballast is normally used as the initial ballast in new
constructions and also as sub-ballast.
As it prevents water from percolating into the formation, it is also used
as a blanketing material for black cotton soil.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 86
COAL ASH OR CINDER
This type of ballast is normally used in yards and sidings or as the
initial ballast in new constructions since it is very cheap and easily
available.
It is harmful for steel sleepers and fittings because of its corrosive
action.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 87

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 88
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 89
 Standard ballast profile for BG

Dimensions are in mm
Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engg,
90
Nirma University
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 91
Minimum Depth of Ballast Cushion:
Sleeper spacing = width of the sleeper + 2 depth of ballast

If a BG track is laid with wooden sleepers with a sleeper density of N +

6, and if the width of the sleeper is 25.4 cm, then the depth of the
ballast cushion would be

Sleeper spacing = 68.4 cm

d = (68.4 25.4)/2 = 21.5cm.

A minimum cushion of 1520 cm of ballast below the sleeper bed is

normally prescribed on Indian Railways.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 92

Ballast Requirement for Tracks

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 93

 RAILWAY SLEEPERS
Sleepers are transverse members of the track placed below the rails
to support and fix them in position.

FUNCTIONS OF SLEEPERS
(i) To hold the rails to proper gauge.
(ii) To transfer the loads from rails to the ballast.
(iii) To support and fix the rails in proper position.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 94

(iv) To keep the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper
super elevation on curves.
(v) To provide elastic medium between the rails and the ballast.
(vi) To provide stability to the permanent way on the whole.

REQUIREMENTS OF SLEEPERS
(a) The initial as well as maintenance cost should be minimum.
(b) The weight of the sleeper should be moderate so that it is convenient
to handle.
(c) The designs of the sleeper and the fastenings should be such that it is
possible to fix and remove the rails easily.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 95

(d) The sleeper should have sufficient bearing area so that the ballast
under it is not crushed.

(e) The sleeper should be such that it is possible to maintain and adjust
the gauge properly.

(f) The material of the sleeper and its design should be such that it does
not break or get damaged during packing.

(g) The design of the sleeper should be such that it is possible to have
track circuiting.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 96

Track Circuiting:
Circuit used to detect presence of trains as part of automated/semi-
automated signalling
Electric circuit formed along each rail and connected to the signal and
cabin
The circuits are isolated/ electrically insulated by sleepers
When track is occupied, the two rails are short-circuited because of the
wheels and axle of the train and breaks the circuit connected to the
signals indicating danger.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 97

TRACK CIRCUITING

98
Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engg, Nirma University
TYPES OF SLEEPERS
Sleepers are of the following types:
1. Wooden sleepers.
2. Steel sleepers.
3. Cast iron sleepers.
4. R.C.C. sleepers.
5. Pre-stressed concrete sleepers.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 99

Wooden sleepers
Wooden sleepers are regarded as the best as they fulfil almost all the
requirements of an Ideal Sleeper

The life of a timber sleeper depends upon their ability to resist i) Wear,
ii) Decay iii) Attack by vermin iv) quality of timber used

The size of a wooden sleeper should be economical.

It should provide the desired strength to the sleeper as a beam as well

as adequate bearing area.

100
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Wooden Sleeper
The depth of a sleeper governs its stiffness as a beam and its length and
width control the necessary bearing area.

Timbers commonly used in India for sleepers are Sal, Teak, Deodar and
chair wood.

The standard sizes of wooden sleepers for different gauges are as

follows:

For B.G. 2740 mm X 250 mm X 130 mm

For M.G. 1830 mm X 203 mm X 114 mm

For N.G. 1520 mm X 150 mm X 100 mm

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 101
ADVANTAGES
(i) Timber is easily available in all parts of India.
(ii) Wooden sleepers are suitable for all types of ballast.
(iii) Wooden sleepers require less fastening and simple in design.
(iv) These sleepers give less noisy track.
(v) These sleepers absorb shocks and vibrations more than any other
sleepers.
(vi) These sleepers are best suited for track circuiting.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 102

DISADVANTAGES
(i) The life of wooden sleeper is less as compared to other types of
sleepers.
(ii) It is difficult to maintain gauge of the track in case of wooden sleepers.
(iii) These sleepers are subjected to wear, decay, and attack by white ants
etc.
(iv) Track laid over wooden sleepers is easily disturbed.
(v) Maintenance cost is more as compared to other sleepers.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 103

Adzing of Wooden Sleepers:
Cutting of wooden sleepers in 1:20 slope
High precision required

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 104

 METAL SLEEPERS
Due to the growing scarcity of wooden sleepers, their high cost and
short life, metal sleepers are widely adopted in India
Metal Sleepers are either Steel or that of Cast Iron
Cast Iron is in greater use than steel because it is less prone to
corrosion
Requirements of Metal Sleepers:
1. They should bear the tensile and compressive stresses which come on
to them
2. Tamping and packing of ballast should not disturb the sleeper
3. For track circuiting insulation should be possible
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 105
4. They should be economical compared to wooden sleepers.
5. They should provide sufficient bearing area similar to that of wooden
sleepers or more.
6. The design of metal sleeper should be such that they provide
i) Ease in fixation and removal of rails
ii) Ease in pushing out the sleeper and replacing them without
disturbing the rail and ballast.
7. Metal sleeper should provide sufficient grip on the rail and ballast to
prevent dislocation of track due to shock and vibrations caused by heavy
loads.
8. The sleepers should help rails maintain a perfect gauge
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 106
Advantages of Metal Sleepers:
1. Metal sleepers are uniform in strength and durability
2. In metal sleeper the performance of fittings is better and hence lesser
creep occurs.
3. Metal sleepers are economical as it has a long life and maintenance is
easier.
4. Gauge can be easily adjusted and maintained in case of metal
sleepers
5. For metal sleepers frequent renewal is not required.
6. They have good scrap value, easy in manufacturing and not
susceptible to fire-hazards.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 107
Disadvantages of Metal Sleepers:
1. More ballast is required than any other type of sleepers
2. Fittings required are greater in number, hence difficult to maintain
and inspect
3. Metals, Cast Iron and Steel, are liable to rusting and corrosion
4. It interferes with track circuiting
5. These sleepers are only suitable for stone ballast and for rails for
which they are manufactured
6. Metal sleepers are unsuitable for bridge, level crossings and in case of
points and crossings

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 108

 STEEL SLEEPERS
These sleepers consist of steel troughs made of 2 to 6 mm thick sheets,
with its both ends bend down to check the running out of ballast.

At the time of pressing of sleepers, an inward slope of 1 in 20 on either

side is provided to achieve required tilt of rails. The standard length of
these is 2680 mm.

About 27% of the track on Indian Railways is laid on steel sleepers.

The increasing shortage of timber in the country and other economical

factors are mainly responsible for the use of steel sleepers in India.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 109

Steel sleepers are of two types:
(a) Key type steel sleepers
(b) Clip and bolt type steel sleepers

Key type steel sleepers:

In this type of sleepers lugs or jaws are pressed out of metal and keys are
used for holding the rails. These are of two types:
(i) Lug type
(ii) Loose jaw type

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 110

Lug type :
The lugs or jaws are pressed out of the plate itself to accommodate the
foot of the rail and the key.
There are several maintenance problems with these pressed up lugs, as
they give way due to the movement of the keys as well as due to the
vibrations and impact of the moving loads.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 111

Loose jaw type:
Because of the defects in lug type of sleepers, another sleeper design
has been adopted.

In this design, two holes are punched into either side of the plate to
accommodate specially designed loose jaws.

The rails are held with the help of two standard keys driven either into
the pressed up lugs or into the loose jaws.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 112

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 113
Loose jaw type:
The adjustment of the gauge to the extent of 3 mm is done by properly
driving in the keys.

The approximate weight of a standard BG trough sleeper is 81 kg and

that of an MG sleeper is 35 kg.

The steel trough (ST) sleeper has an average life of about 50 years.

It is an acceptable type of sleeper for use with long welded rails because
of its lateral stability and its adaptability for use along with elastic
fastenings.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 114

STEEL THROUGH SLEEPERS

115
STEEL SLEEPER

116
Advantages of Steel Sleepers
(a) Long life
(b) Easy to maintain gauge and less maintenance problems
(c) Good lateral rigidity
(d) Less damage during handling and transport
(e) Simple manufacturing process
(f) Very good scrap value
(g) Free from decay and attack by vermin
(h) Not susceptible to fire hazards
(i) Requires less fastenings
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 117
Disadvantages of Steel Sleepers
(i) Initial cost of these sleepers is more than wooden sleepers.

(ii) Cracks are developed at rail seat of these sleepers.

(iii) Steel sleepers are not suitable for track circuiting.

(iv) These are not suitable for all types of ballast.

(v) These are liable to corrosion.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 118

Cast Iron Sleepers:
Cast iron sleepers are being extensively used on Indian Railways and
about 45% of the track at present consists of CI sleepers, which may be
either pot type or plate type.

Type of Cast Iron Sleepers:

A) C. I. Pot Sleepers

B) C S T- 9 Sleepers

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 119

Advantages of CI Sleepers
(a) Less corrosion

(b) Less probability of cracking at rail seat

(c) Easy to manufacture and more durable

(d) Higher scrap value

(e) Creep rails can be checked by using these sleepers

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 120

Disadvantages of Cast Iron Sleepers:
(i) More ballast is required than any other type of sleepers.

(ii) The number of fittings required is more.

(iii) These sleepers are liable to break.

(iv) C.I. Sleepers are liable to break.

(v) These are not suitable for all types of ballast.

(vi) Not suitable for high speed route

(vii) Lesser later stability

(viii) Tie bars weakened by corrosion

121
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 122
Cast Iron Pot Sleepers
They consist of two hollow bowls or pots of circular or elliptical shape
placed inverted on the ballast section.

The two pots are connected by a tie bar with the help of cotters and
gibs.

The gauge can be adjusted slightly [ 3 mm (1/8")] by changing their

positions.

The rail is placed on top of the pots in a rail seat provided with a cant of
1 in 20 and is held in position with the help of a key.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 123

Cast Iron Pot Sleepers
The pot sleeper suffers from the drawback that it cannot be used on
curves sharper than 4 on BG.

Most of the fittings are hidden and their inspection and maintenance is
quite difficult.

These sleepers have become obsolete now and are not being procured by
the Indian Railways any more.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 124

C.S.T 9 Sleeper 125
C.S.T 9 Sleeper:
The CST-9 sleeper is a standard sleeper and is being most extensively
used on Indian Railways (IR).

It is called CST-9 (Central Standard Trial-9) because it is the ninth of

the series produced by the Central Standard Office.

The sleeper is a combination of pot, plate, and box sleepers.

It consists of two triangular inverted pots on either side of the rail seat,
a central plate with a projected keel, and a box on top of the plate.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 126

C.S.T 9 Sleeper:

The two CI plates are connected by a tie bar with the help of four
cotters.

The rails are held to the sleeper by two-way keys provided at each rail
seat on the side of the gauge face.

The gauge is adjusted to a value of 5 mm by

Altering the relative positions of the four cotters.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 127

Usual defects in CST-9 Sleepers:
Cracks at rail seats or fracture

Wear of lug and rail seat

Tie bars weakened by corrosion, broken or damaged by falling of wagon

parts.

Corrosion of tie bars inside the cast iron plates.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 128

CONCRETE SLEEPERS
Need for concrete sleepers in India
In India there has been a chronic shortage of wooden sleepers over the last few
decades.
Wooden sleepers of various species in India have a short life-span of about 15
20 years.
In view of this drawback of wooden sleepers, cast iron and steel trough
sleepers have been used extensively.
The consumption of these metal sleepers at present is quite high and Indian
Railways consumes about 40% of the entire pig iron production in the country.
There is a need to reduce pig iron consumption by the Railways so that the
iron can be made available in large quantities for defence purposes and other
heavy engineering industries.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 129
Need for concrete sleepers in India
In addition, higher speeds, welding of rails, and installation of long
welded rails have recently been introduced in Indian Railways.
A sleeper for a long welded track has to be heavy and sturdy and should
be capable of offering adequate lateral resistance to the track.
Wooden and steel sleepers were found to be totally lacking in these
requirements.
Both these considerations led to investigations for selecting a suitable
concrete sleeper for use on Indian Railways.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 130

Advantages of Concrete Sleepers:
(a) Concrete sleepers, being heavy, lend more strength and stability to the
track and are specially suited to LWR (long welded rails) due to their
great resistance to buckling of the track.
(b) Concrete sleepers with elastic fastenings allow a track to maintain
better gauge, cross level, and alignment. They also retain packing very
well.
(c) Concrete sleepers, because of their flat bottom, are best suited for
modern methods of track maintenance
(d) Concrete sleepers can be used in track-circuited areas, as they are
poor conductors of electricity.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 131

Advantages of Concrete Sleepers:

(e) Concrete sleepers are neither inflammable nor subjected to damage by

pests or corrosion under normal circumstances.

(f) Concrete sleepers have a very long lifespan, probably 4050 years As
such rail and sleeper renewals can be matched, which is a major
economic advantage.

(g) Concrete sleepers can generally be mass produced using local

resources.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 132

Disadvantages of Concrete sleepers:
(a) Handling and laying concrete sleepers is difficult due to their large
weight. Mechanical methods, which involve considerable initial
expenditure, have to be adopted for handling them.

(b) Concrete sleepers are heavily damaged at the time of derailment.

(c) Concrete sleepers have no scrap value.

(d) Concrete sleepers are not suitable for beater packing.

(e) Concrete sleepers should preferably be maintained by heavy on track

tampers.
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 133
Types of concrete Sleepers:
i)Mono-block Prestressed Concrete Sleepers.

ii) Twin block reinforced concrete Sleepers.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 134

Shape of Mono Block Sleepers

Reason:
Tilting of rails
Drainage

135

Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engg, Nirma University

136
 Twin Block Concrete Sleeper

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 137

138
Spacing of Sleepers and Sleeper Density:
Sleeper density = Number of sleepers per unit rail length.
It is specified as M + x or N + x,
where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that
varies according to factors such as:
Axle load and speed
Type and section of rails
Type and strength of sleepers
Type of ballast and ballast cushion
Nature of formation

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 139

Spacing of Sleepers and Sleeper Density:
If the sleeper density is M + 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of
the rail is 13 m, it means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail
on that route.

The number of sleepers in a track can also be specified by indicating the

number of sleepers per kilometre of the track. For example, 1540
sleepers/km.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 140

Spacing of Sleepers:
The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density. Spacing is
not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer near the joints because of
The weakness of the joints and
Impact of moving loads on them
Prof. Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engg, Nirma University 142
143
 RAILS
Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to provide
an unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the movement of
trains.

To be able to withstand stresses, they are made of high-carbon steel.

Standard rail sections, their specifications, and various types of rail

defects are discussed in this section.

Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University 144

Functions of Rails:

Rails provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains

Rails provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction.
(The friction between the steel wheel and the steel rail is about one-fifth
of the friction between the pneumatic tyre and a metalled road.)

Provide strength, durability and lateral guidance to the track

Transmit the axle loads to sleepers which transfer the same load to the
underlying ballast and formation;

Bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, breaking forces
and temperature variance.
145
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Composition of rail steel
Generally rails are made by open hearth process.
Different areas of rails have different chemical compositions depending
upon the requirements
 Content of ordinary rails
Material
Material Percentage
Percentage
Carbon
Carbon 0.55
0.55to
to0.68
0.68

Manganese
Manganese 0.65
0.65to
to0.90
0.90

Silicon
Silicon 0.05
0.05to
to0.30
0.30

Sulphur
Sulphur 0.05
0.05 percent
percent or below

Phosphorous
Phosphorous 0.06
0.06 percent
percent or below

Iron
Iron 98.01
98.01toto98.53
98.53

Uses High Carbon Steel

Contents of rails on points and crossings

Material Percentage
Carbon 0.5 to 0.6

Manganese 0.95 to 1.25

Silicon 0.05 to 0.20

Sulphur 0.06 percent or below

Phosphorous 0.06 percent or below

Iron 97.83 to 98.5

Uses Medium Carbon Steel

Requirements of an Ideal Rails Section:

The rail should have the most economical section consistent with strength,
stiffness, and durability.

The centre of gravity of the rail section should preferably be very close to
the mid-height of the rail so that the maximum tensile and compressive
stresses are equal.

A rail primarily consists of a head, a web, and a foot, and there should be
an economical and balanced distribution of metal in its various
components so that each of them can fulfill its requirements properly.

Height of rail enough to provide essential vertical stiffness

Large Head and Foot width to ensure lateral stiffness

 Head: The head of the rail should have adequate depth to allow for vertical
wear.
Web: The web should be sufficiently thick so as to withstand the stresses
arising due to the loads bone by it.
Foot: The foot should be of sufficient thickness to be able to withstand
vertical and horizontal forces
Requirements of Ideal Rails:
Thick enough web to provide flexural rigidity
Wide foot for stability against overturning
Smooth transmission of loads in head, foot and web. Thus smooth section
curvature
PARTS OF RAIL SECTION
Methods to Reduce wear and tear of Rails:

Better maintenance of track

Reduction of number of joints

Use of heavier rails and special steel alloys

Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in curves

Providing check rails in sharp curves

Interchanging inner and outer rails

Coning of wheels and tilting of rails

152
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Causes of Rail Failure
Inherent defects
Defects due to fault of rolling stock and abnormal traffic
Excessive corrosion
Badly maintained joints
Defects in welded joints
Improper maintenance
Derailments

153
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
 TYPES OF RAIL SECTIONS

Rail Sections

Double Bull Flat

Headed(DO) Headed(BH) Footed(FF)
DOUBLE HEADED RAILS

The rail sections, whose foot and head are of same

dimensions, are called Double headed or Dumb-bell
rails.
These rails were widely used in the railway track.

The idea behind using these rails was that when the
head had worn out due to rubbing action of wheels,
the rails could be inverted and reused.

But by experience it was found that their foot could

not be used as running surface because it also got
corrugated under the impact of wheel loads.
This type of rail is not in use in Indian Railways
now-a days.
155
BULL HEADED SECTION
Head is thicker
Thus can withstand more stresses
Good at taking lateral loads
Bull headed rails are especially used for
making points and crossings
Later Flat Footed Rails were developed

156
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
BULL HEADED RAILS

MERITS

Better alignment, solid and smoother track

Can be easily disconnected from the sleepers

Have heavy chairs with larger bearing and thus

have longer lifespan

DEMERITS

Additional cost of iron chairs

Less strength and stiffness

Heavy maintenance cost

157
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
FLAT-FOOTED RAILS
In this type of rail, the foot is spread out to form a base
This form of rail was invented by Charles Vignoles in
1836 and hence, these rails are sometimes known as
Vignoles rails.
At present, about 90% of the railway track in the world
is laid with this form of rails.
Eliminates the need for chairs.
If wooden sleepers are used the heavy train loads cause
the foot of the rail to sink into the sleepers and making
the spikes loose. Hence bearing plates of steel between
sleeper and rail is used.
158
Hemanth Kamplimath, Dept of Civil Engineering, Nirma University
Advantages of Flat Bottom Plates:

Chairs: No chairs are required in this form of rails. The foot of the rail is
directly spiked to the sleepers. This fact makes them economical.

Stiffness: This form of rail is stiffer, both vertically and laterally than
the bull-headed rail of equal weight. Especially on curves, the lateral
stiffness of rails is very important.

Kinks: This form of rail is less liable to develop kinks and it maintains
a more regular top surface than the bull-headed rails.

159
 Cost: The flat footed rails are found to be cheaper than the bull-headed
rails.

Load Distribution: The flat footed rail distributes the train load over a
great number of sleepers. This results in greater track stability.

Fitting easy Easier maintenance

Demerits
Fittings loosened more frequently by impact
Straightening of bent rails, replacing and de-hogging of battered rails is
difficult.

160
 COMPARISON OF RAIL TYPES
Flat Footed Rails BH or DH Rails

More strength and stiffness for same weight Less strength and stiffness
vertically and laterally
Easier fitting no chairs required Time consuming and more complex fitting
Arrangements at points, checks and sharp Difficult arranging
curves is easier
Loosening of fittings disturbs alignment Stable alignment Solid and smooth track
Lesser and cheaper fastenings less initial cost Higher cost
More rigid Can be used on sleepers even Less rigid Essentially need bearing plates/
without bearing plates chairs
No need of daily inspection Need inspection on daily basis Wooden chairs

Difficult replacement Easier replacement

Less maintenance cost Heavy maintenance cost
More suitable for better stability, economy, More suitable for heavier lateral loads
strength and stiffness
Selection of Rails
Important factors to be considered for deciding weight per unit length

1. Speed of the train

2. Gauge of the track

3. Axle load

4. Nature of traffic

5. Type of rail section

6. Sleeper Density

7. Maximum possible wear of rails