Ethical School of Thoughts

Ethical School of Thoughts

Proponents: (Beauchamp and Childress)
• Teleological Ethics
Greek Teleos – “end” or “purpose”
It stresses the end-result, goal or consequence of an
act as the determining factor of its rightness and
wrongness. Eg. Virtue Ethics
• Deontological Ethics
Greek deon, deontos – duty or obligation
stresses duty as the norm of moral actions, hence it is
also known as duty ethics. Eg. Kant’s Ethics

Proponents: Shannon and Digiacomo

• Rule Ethics – appeals to a set of criteria, norms or
rules to settle what is the right and just and ethical
decision to make. Eg. Ten Commandments
• Act Ethics – determines the rightness and wrongness
by weighing the consequences of the act itself. Eg.
Utilitarianism
 Ethical School of Thoughts
Proponents: Munson and Pahl
• Ethical Relativism – also known as moral relativism.
Standard of right and wrong are always relative to a
particular culture and society.
strength: every culture has its own norm of moral
actions eg. Eskimo, Islam, African, Igorot’s ‘olog’,
Americans
Of equal worth are different sets of moral principles
and when an individual legitimizes one set over
another it is simply the outcome of having been
raised in a particular culture.
weakness: As an ethical theory it claims that moral
principles and/or precepts are relative, and hence are
not binding for everyone, so that even its own view
per se is not valid for all.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
Proponents: Joseph Fletcher
• Situation Ethics – the moral norm depends upon a given
situation, but whatever this situation may be, one must
always act in the name of Christian love.
6 propositions on situation ethics:
• 1. Only one thing is intrinsically good, namely love:
nothing else. It is always geared towards the good of the
other, because it cares, respects and protects the dignity
of the other.
• 2. The ultimate norm of Christian decisions is love:
nothing else. It seeks the good of the other radically and
nonpreferentially beyond racism and religionism.
• 3. Love and justice are the same, for justice is love
distributed. To respect and to be concerned about the
other’s well-being is to recognize the other as s/he really
is, a fellow human being.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• 4. Love wills the neighbor’s good whether we like him or
not. Christian love is literally benevolence; it is a matter of
loving the unlovable, the unlikeable, the uncongenial, the
unresponsive. It is not sentimental or reciprocal.
• 5. Only the end justifies the means: nothing else. It
contradicts Christian Ethics that teaches “the end does
not justify the means”. Fletcher claims that an evil means
does not always nullify a good end; it all depends upon
the situation.
• 6. Decisions ought to be made situationally, not
prescriptively. There is no general prescription by which
an individual can decide on certain moral problems. Moral
decisions are relative to the situation.
• Weakness: Contextualism may encourage ethical
relativism. While situationist may be prudent enough,
weighing circumstances, in the light of which a moral
decision should or ought to be made, does not and cannot
always guarantee an objective and impartial judgment.
 Ethical School of Thoughts

Proponents: Charles Peirce and William James

• Pragmatism – holds that the true and valid form of
knowledge is one which is practical, workable, beneficial
and useful. Produces practical results, it works, benefits
people and one that can be used to attain good results.
In the medical context it is also known as
experimentalism and instrumentalism. Their being right or
wrong depends upon the difference it makes to the
patient.
Weakness: it has been accused of being too materialistic,
(would a particular decision on a business transaction
augment the company’s income?) too individualistic (is a
certain act good simply because it makes a big difference
to me or to you?). It may lead to a capricious or self-
serving judgment.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
Proponents: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
• Utilitarianism – the rightness and wrongness of actions is
determined by the goodness and badness of their
consequences. Actions are good insofar as they tend to
promote happiness, bad as they tend to produce
unhappiness. Consequences, effects, results and
outcomes are the most important. We ought to choose the
action that produces the most benefits at the least cost of
pain or unhappiness.
• Weakness: 1) It seems that the utilitarian principle justifies
the imposition of discomfort or suffering on a few for the
sake of the many. It implies that some individuals are
inherently more important than others; their happiness or
well-being counts more than the happiness or welfare of
the ordinary or impoverished person.
2) it is impractical to attempt to determine all the possible
legitimate results that must be taken into account before a
moral decision can be adjudged as right or wrong.
3) It ignores the motives from which some moral decisions
are made.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• Kant’s Ethics (Immanuel Kant)– his ethical view is sometimes called
deontologism for its emphasis on duty or obligation but he also says
that what is morally right or wrong is solely a matter of intent, motive
and will. For Kant, the essence of morality is to be found in the motive
from which an act is done. Kant’s concept of the will as self-regulating
and autonomous is that the reasons and justifications for one’s
decisions are one’s own.
• Categorical Imperative – acting from the sense of duty entails an
oughtness, an obligation, that must be performed irrespective of the
results, at all times and in all places. As compared to Hypothetical
Imperative – acting from the sense of prudence entails the exercise of
sound judgment in practical matters, depending upon one’s judicious
discretion.
1. Act only on that maxim which you can at the same time will to
become a universal law.
2. Always act so as to treat humanity, either yourself or others, as an
end and never as only a means. Do unto others what you wish
yourself.
• Weakness: 1. Duties should be ranked and an order of precedence
should be made.
2. Categorical imperative is insufficient in solving certain moral
problems.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• Ross’s Ethics (William David Ross) –
• Rules : Absolute principles are too rigid, often insensitive
to the consequences of an act, they are also so inflexible
that they become irrelevant to ever-changing situations,
there are exceptions for every rule.
• Moral Properties: Rightness belongs to acts, independent
of motives; hence we speak of right acts. Moral goodness
belongs to motives; hence we speak of good motives.
• Actual Duty and Prima Facie Duty – when moral rules
comes into conflict, we have to rely on our moral intuitions
as the ultimate guide in particular cases. What to do:
1. Learn and discern the facts in the case
2. Consider the possible consequences of our actions
3. Reflect on our prima facie duties
4. Decide on the best course of action under the
circumstances.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• Ross listed down seven types of Prima Facie
Duties
• 1. Duty of Fidelity – we should be faithful to our
duties, obligations, vows or pledges
• 2. Duty of Reparation – we have the duty to make
amends for injury that we have inflicted on others,
righting the wrong we have done to others
• 3. Duty of Gratitude – we have the duty to
appreciate and recognize the services others
have done for us, which maybe either a favor,
kindness, good fortune, a great help or saving
one’s life.
• 4. Duty of Justice – proper distribution of social
benefits and burdens.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• Ross listed down seven types of Prima Facie Duties
• 5. Duty of Beneficence – This type of duty enjoins us not
only to bring about what is good for others but also to help
them better their conditions with respect to virtue,
intelligence, or comfort.
• 6. Duty of Self-improvement – we also have the duty to
improve and develop ourselves with respect to virtue,
intelligence and happiness. This should go hand-in-hand
with other duties. We ought to improve ourselves so as to
be able to carry out other duties.
• 7. Duty of Nonmaleficence – we ought to avoid inflicting
evil, injury or harm upon others as we would avoid doing
so to ourselves. “Do not do unto others, what you don’t
want others do unto you.”

• Weakness: It is practically impossible for all individuals to

be able to discern the same moral principles and prima
facie duties. There are many perceptions as there are
individuals living in different situations; hence we are led
back to ethical relativism.
 Ethical School of Thoughts

• Rawls’s Theory of Justice (John Rawls) –

• 1. Every individual is inviolable and not even the general
welfare of society can override and supersede it. The
greater good to be shared by all members should not be
used to justify the loss of freedom of others.
• 2. An erroneous theory is tolerable in the absence of a
good one. An act of injustice can be tolerated if and only if
it is necessary to avoid an even greater act of injustice.
• 3. Individual liberties should be restricted in order to
maintain equality of opportunity. ‘Walang palakasan’.
Restrictions are intended not to destroy but to preserve
freedom; amidst restrictions, equality of opportunity
among the citizens to develop themselves will be best
served.
 Ethical School of Thoughts

• Rawls’s Principles of Justice

• 1. Equal access to the basic human rights and
liberties. It prohibits the bartering away of liberty
for social or monetary considerations.
• 2. Fair equality of opportunity and the equal
distribution of socio-economic inequalities.
Everyone should be given an opportunity for self-
development. While distribution of income and
wealth need not be equal for one reason or
another, it should as much as possible be to
everyone’s advantage. Individuals can exercise
the freedom to pursue their own concept of good
and chart their own destiny.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• Rawls’s Justice in Human Relationships
• 1. fairness in our dealings with others
• 2. fidelity
• 3. respect for persons
• 4. beneficence

• Natural Duties
• 1. the duty of justice
• 2. the duty of helping others in need or jeopardy
• 3. the duty not to harm or injure others
• 4. the duty to keep out promises

• Weakness: Rawls’s concept of justice refers to the utility

principle or principle of the greatest number.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
(Thomas Aquinas) – it
• Thomistic Natural Law Ethics

directs us towards good as the goal of our

action, and that good is discoverable within
our nature. The basic moral principle is the
dictate of the voice of the conscience “Do
good, avoid evil”
• The good is built into human nature and it is
that to which we are directed by our natural
inclinations.
• St. Thomas also proposed the ‘tres fontes’
 Ethical School of Thoughts

• Principles of Ethical Action based from the Natural Law

1. Principle of Inviolability of life – states that life is God’s and
has been loaned to us, hence it is inviolable and sacred
2. Principle of Double Effect – applies to a situation in which
a good effect and an evil effect will result from a good
cause. There are 4 conditions 1) the action directly
intended must be good in itself or at least morally
indifferent. 2) the good effect must follow from the action
at least as immediately as the evil effect. 3) the foreseen
evil effect may not be intended or approved but merely
permitted to occur. 4) there must be proportionate and
sufficient reason for allowing the evil effect to occur
while performing the action.
 Ethical School of Thoughts

• Principles of Ethical Action based from the Natural Law

• 3. Principle of Stewardship and Creativity – declares that
human life and all things comes from God and no
individual is the master of his/her body or over creation
• 4. Principle of Sexuality and procreation – 2fold purpose
of sexual union 1) procreation and nurturing of children,
2) the expression of loving union and companionship.
Both purpose must be achieved only within the conjugal
bond.
• 5. Principle of the Totality – the whole is greater than
any of its part. Is it lawful to sacrifice a member of the
body for the good of the whole body? Yes, since the
body as a whole is more important than its individual
parts.
 Ethical School of Thoughts
• 6. The Rule of Ordinary Means – to preserve life we must
take ordinary means but usually we need not take
extraordinary means. A person would nor obliged to
undergo a serious operation for cancer of his stomach or
submit to the use of artificial respiration apparatus. All these
are extraordinary means and therefore, not obligatory.
However, there may be certain extrinsic circumstances
making the use of extraordinary means mandatory from
moral point of view.
• 7. The Principle of Subsidiarity – what can be done by
individual or lower group should not be done by a higher
group. In the field of health, of politics, of sociology, the
fundamental principle with moral overtones stands: what
needs to be done should, if possible be done by an
individual or private group; if this is not possible then it
should be done by the lowest possible unit of society.
Ethical School of Thoughts

• The Principle of the Lesser Evil - also known

simply as the lesser evil, is the idea that of
two bad choices, one isn't as bad as the
other, and should be chosen over the one
that is a greater threat. Some people consider
the lesser of two evils principle to be an
instance of the false dichotomy fallacy, and
its enemies include both revolutionaries who
oppose the system as a whole and
moderates advocating that third parties be
given equal weight in that system
 Six Step Process

1. Gather Relevant Information

2. Identify the Type of Ethical Problem
3. Use Ethics Theories or Approaches to
Analyze the Problem
4. Explore the Practical Alternatives
5. Complete the Action
6. Evaluate the Process and Outcome
 Case Analysis (Assign)

• 1. A senior student working on one of the

floors suspects that a recently hired cleaner is
taking petty change from patients when they
are too sick to know of it. She says to herself,
“what do you know won’t hurt you,” and
fearing a “scene” if she brings the matter to
the attention of the charge nurse, she decides
not to investigate the matter further but to let
her suspicion remain just that.
Case Analysis (Assign)

• 2. A psychology student reads only five

pages of a 150 – page obscene book,
saying that this is so little part of the
book, it does not matter.
• 3. A chaplain stays in the burning wing
of a hospital to administer the last rites.
He can escape if he leaves now. If he
stays, he will certainly be trapped and
killed.
 Case Analysis (Assign)

• 4. The captain of a sunken fishing boat, which

had 60 persons on board, has managed to
rescue 15 in a lifeboat. Thirty-five others have
life jackets on and will probably be picked up
in time. The lifeboat is already overloaded
and will probably capsize if any others are
taken aboard, and so the captain hastens to
row away from the scene of the accident lest
those already in the lifeboat also perish.
 Case Analysis (Assign)

• 5. A doctor in the armed services in an

outlying district of the tropics comes
across a native with spinal meningitis.
He has no instruments or means of
sterilization. He feels that if he treats the
native, he will contract the disease. He
also feels responsible for 150 soldiers
who need his medical help and may die
without him.
 Instructions

• Analyze the problems using the six step

process.
• Answers are to be encoded (Arial 11)
and to be submitted on January , 2009.
 Case Project Format
I. Introduction
- Statement of the problem
- Scope and Limitation
- Methodology
- Significance of the Study
- Objectives
II. Content
- See
- Judge
- Act
III. References
- Bibliographies
- Appendix (Documentations)
 Case Project Format
II. Content
- See
A. Background
B. Survey
* results & findings
* analysis & evaluation
C. New findings on the topic/ issue
- Judge
A. History of your topic
B. Overview (discussion of the content of your topic)
C. Viewpoints of other Discipline
- Medical, Legal, Psychological, Sociological
D. Effects (application of the different ethical principles to your issue
and what is the implication of the result of your survey with
regard to ethical principles)
E. Viewpoints of the Church
(include the group’s viewpoint on the topic)
- Act
A. Summary
B. Conclusion (consider the result of your survey and ethical principles)
C. Recommendation