University of Khartoum

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

Ceramic products manufacture

By:
Amel Elsadig Alamir 092006
Shadin Hisham Suliman 092026 Supervised by:
Maram Mujahid Mamon 092046 Dr. Kmal Al deen Altayeb Yassin.

September 2014
 Outlines

Introduction. Ancillaries design.

Process description. Process control.

Material balance. Safety and environmental considerations.

Energy balance. Layout.

Equipment Designs. Economical evaluation.

objectives

Plan a modern plant for ceramics production.

The demand for ceramic in Sudan is large, but production rate is relatively small and its
covered from importing from Germany and Italy.
The objective of the plant is to satisfy the local demand and to the export rest to achieve
financial revenues.
 Introduction
Ceramics : a class of inorganic, nonmetallic materials that are typically made by taking mixtures of clay,
earthen elements, powders, and water and shaping them into desired forms by pressure and heat.
Properties:
hard, wear-resistant, brittle, refractory, thermal insulators, electrical insulators, non-magnetic oxidation
resistant, prone to thermal shock, less dense than most metals, and chemically stable.
Types:
traditional ceramics:
_pottery
_white ware (Earthenware, stoneware, chinaware, porcelain)
Advanced ceramics:
_oxides
_non-oxides
_composites
Applications:
Tiles, art-ware, kitchenware, ovenware, tableware, ball mill balls and liners, chemical-ware, insulators,
and table-ware.
advanced: cut and polish metals, in gas-turbine engines, electronic products, aerospace and automotive
engine components, pump parts, bearing sleeves and valve, microwave plasma, LED, semiconductor chips.
Some ceramics are compatible with bone and tissue.
Raw materials used for unglazed wall and floor tiles:

Clays (ball clay, black clay, UK clay): high plasticity.

Kaolin: contributes to Mullite forming.
Feldspar: as fluxing agent and reduces firing temperature.
Calcite: modifies the reactivity of the clayey minerals, and leads to the
formation of anorthite.
Silica: decrease plasticity, reduce shrinking, and balance the viscosity.
Process flow diagram
 Total material balance
production rate = 200 ton/day. Working 24hr/day, 300
days/year.

Total losses of 2% per day.

Water is added later to the raw materials.
Raw material Chemical In term of oxides Percentag
composition e (%)
Feldspar KAlSi3O8 1/2
Assumptions in the kiln:
(K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2) 30

90% conversion of the decomposition reaction of kaolinite. Kaolin (china) Al2Si2O5(OH)4 Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O
clay 20
90% conversion of the decomposition reaction of calcite. Ball clay Al2Si4O9(OH)4 Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O
20
Conversion of 42.64921 % of total metakaolin. Black clay Al2Si4O9(OH)4 Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O
10
Selectivity of 90.139854 % for mullite from reacted UK clay Al2Si4O9(OH)4 Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O
10
metakaolin. calcite CaCO3 CaO.CO2
6
silica SiO2 - 4
Total heat balance
15,364,934.58
Assumptions:
Steady state operation. kJ
All clays are treated as one material due to their
similar nature and characteristics. 307,337,229.1 475,327.5132
Room temperature is taken as 35C. kJ kJ

18,918,971.62
kJ

23,375,423.36
kJ
Total inlet Losses + outlet 361,051,516.5
cooling kJ
384,426,939. 365,508,148.3 18,918,791.6 42,330,657.08
9
Efficiency of spray Efficiency of2 Efficiency of kJ
dryer dryer kiln
45 % 60 % 78 %
Total heat balance

KILN HEAT BALANCE

1100
Anorthite = 111.78808 /
1000 Mullite = 509.1505 /

900
Calcite = +9.5512/
800

700

600
kaolin = +146.44 /
= 7.597 tons 500

400

300
Assumptions:
200
The remaining moisture is released as sat. vapor at 130 C. 100
The gases are released as soon as they are formed , carbon 0
dioxide at 850 C , water vapor at 130 C, and lattice water 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
vapor at 550 C.
 Ball mill design
specification Bonds method Denvers

Bond method: depends on a standard laboratory test to obtain model

the material work index. Then calculating the power Mill diameter (m) 3.237 3.287
consumption and relate it to the ball length and diameter. Mill length (m) 4.8555 4.93074
Mill power (kw) 644.585 919.9907
Denver model: is derived for the various types of ore referring to
its hardness: soft ore, hard ore, or medium ore. Actual rotating speed 16.4635 16.3374
(rpm)
Top ball size (mm) 34.1873 31.846
Charge height (m) 2.1323 2.1654
Grinding conditions:
Loading (%) 30.9887 30.97361
Feed size =2.624 mm, product size = 0.08338 mm Residence time (min) 1.7336 1.91226

30% balls loading, 0.7 fraction of critical speed

L/D = 1.5, operating 6 hr/day (55 ton/hr).

Materials of construction:
The balls are made of steel.
The inner surface is lined with rubber.
The mill is made of mild steel which has a carbon
content of 0.15%.
Ball mill control
In closed-circuit system a classifier returns coarse
material back to the mill feed.
Using decentralized PID controller.

General process transfer function = .
+1

Problems with decentralized PID controller are solved

using Detuned multi-loop PID controller, introducing de-
couplers.
Process Ball mill
Controlled variable Particle size of classifier over flow.
Classifier feed rate.
Measuring element Classifier.
Regulating element Weight feeders
Manipulated element Fresh solids feed rate.
Dilution water.
Load variables mill critical speed fraction.
ore hardness changes.
feed size variations.
 Kiln performance as a reactor

3 Al2Si2O5(OH)4 500-600 C 3 Al2Si2O7 + 6 H2O > 980 C 3 SiAlO + 4 SiO

kaolin Meta kaolin mullite

3 CaCO3 800-900 C3 CaO + 3 CO2.> 1000 C 3 [CaO.Al2O3.2SiO2]

calcite anorthit
e T vs X
100
Since anorthite formation and calcite decomposition have little
90
contribution to the final products, they can be neglected.
kaolin
80
242000

Kaolin kinetics: = . = 2.21 108 . 8.314. 3 70

599000 60

Mullite kinetics: = . = 8.21 1022 . 8.314. 50

40

= 0 + . , and = where is the heating rate 30

20
= 1 = 94.65% at 950C , and 99.896% at 1190C
0 10

0
= 1 = 0.01484% at 1190C 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
kiln selection (roller hearth kiln)

RHK is more efficient than tunnel kilns.

Heating sections of the kiln :the pre-kiln, the pre-heating zone, the
high temperature firing zone.
Cooling sections: the rapid cooling zone, the gentle cooling zone, the
final cooling zone.

RHK parameters value

Maximum firing 1190C
temperature
firing atmosphere oxidizing
Dimensions 15 * 2.3
m
Combustion fuel LPG
 Roller hearth kiln control
Process Roller hearth kiln
Controlled variable Temperature at various
locations in the kiln.
Measuring element Thermocouple.
Regulating element Valve.
Manipulated LPG flow rate.
element
Load variables ambient temperature.
Humidity.
Fuel quality.
Materials load.

The mathematical model of the system is:

= .
+ 1
First by P-controller: which may lead either to oscillation or take a
relative long time.
Second by PID-controller:
parameter Ziegler-Nichols PID controller tuning formula
D-action: reduces oscillation and settling time.
Ti
I-action: reduces steady-state error. =
2
Td
Tuning the system by finding critical gain and critical time period =
8
associated with it. KP = 0.6

based on Ziegler-Nichols method , , and gain values are

 Ancillaries design
tanks Material Amount Volume
handled (kg/day) (m)

Fixed roof slurry 330102.6978 301

tanks
Open top tank Dust powder 225859.7406 128

Ball mill Material Amount separation of Product diameter Diameter of hydro-cyclone

classifier handled (kg/hr) particles (m) (cm)
hydro-cyclone slurry 55017.1163 90% 83.38 80

Pump(101) Head (m) Power (KW) Rotational velocity Capacity (3 /)

(rpm)
Horizontal centrifugal 18 m 4 2000 8.574
pump
Air Gas Dimensions Weight Heat output
heater type (mm) (kg) (KW/h)
Steam LPG 423*80*94 3.8 2.4
heated
Cyclone Efficien Ring leman Emission
cy blackness concentration
Dry cyclone 97 % 0.5 50
 Spray Dryer Design
Specifications:

Drying intensity 26.21709

(Kg/3 )
Power 38.00136988 kw
Efficiency 92.3077%
Wheel atomizer diameter 6m

Chamber height 18 m
Droplet diameter 0.000355 m
Particle size diameter 0.000037261 m
Inlet air temperature 600C
Outlet air temperature 120C
Outlet moisture content 5%
Van type Rectangular van
Liquid-air layout Co-current
Material od construction Stainless steel
Control of spray dryer

the moisture content is not directly measurable, it is indirectly controlled by

maintaining the outlet air temperature at a set value by varying either the
feed rate to the dryer or the main inlet air drying temperature (feedback
control strategy).
The temperature control system by feed rate variation. Gfeed(s) is the
transfer from feed input to output. Gc - controller transfer function. Gsolid(s)
is the transfer function of the disturbance
 Hydraulic press design
Parameter specification
Height (stroke) 0.7 (m)
Inside diameter 0.3 (m)
Rod diameter 0.12 (m)
Extension rate 0.214714(m/sec)
Retraction rate 0.255474 (m/sec)
Hydraulic oil flow 0.01517(m3/sec)
rate
weight 321.100917 (ton)
Oil pressure applied 5 (MPa)
Pump power 32062 (watt)
Pump efficiency 90%
Pump input power 84272.57847 (watt)
Hydraulic press control

Process Hydraulic press

Controlled variable Position of piston.

Measuring element Flow rate indicator.

Regulating element Valve of the oil.
Manipulated element Oil flow rate.
 Dryer design
Flow rate of hot air (G) 4 m/s
Flow rate of wet 0.128077 kg
material(F) wet/s
Flow rate of dry material 0.121979 kg dry/s
(Fd)
Inlet air temperature (Tg) 300C
Outlet air temperature (Tg) 130C
Temperature of wet material 35C
(T)
Temperature of dry material 100C
(T)
Moisture content of wet 0.05
material (w)
Moisture content of dry 0.003
material (w)
Length of the dryer at 1.3 m
critical moisture content
(Zc)
 environmental considerations
Air emissions
SO: function of sulfur content of fuel used, sulfur content of raw materials.
NO:The raw flue gas but the raw flue-gas coming from spray dryer contains more Nox.
Greenhouse Gas(GHG): especially CO, the volume of these pollutant depends on the use of energy in
the kiln and spray dryer.
Emissions of HF: from the kiln when raw materials contain fluorine impurities.
Volatile organic compounds(VOC): from incomplete combustion and volatilization of the organics with
the raw material.
particulate matter: PM less than 10m
How do we reduce these emissions???

Waste water
Solid waste
Health& safety issues

Types of hazards:
- Respiratory hazard.
- exposure to heat.
- exposure to noise/vibration.
- physical hazard.
- electrical hazards.
Respiratory hazard:

silica dust is crystalline silica that may become respirable size particles when
work chip, cut, drill and grind quarts that contain crystalline silica .
Silicosis: is a disease caused by the prolonged breathing of crystalline silica
dust.
A worker may develop any of the following three types of silicosis:
1. Chronic silicosis
2. Accelerated silicosis
3. Acute silicosis
What do to help protect workers from silica exposure??
Plant location and layout
To choose the best location we have to Consider the following factors:
- market and transportation
-climate
- raw material
- labor & water supply
- waste disposal
-site characteristics
The best location is west Omdurman.
For plant layout we must consider the type an quantity of product, types of process, economic
distribution of utilities, health an safety considerations, space availability and finally roats and
railways.
Plant layout
 Economic evaluation

Costs of equipment were obtained from quotations. Tanks

costs were estimated and modified for production year.

The following assumptions were made:

The plant life span is twenty years.

All costs in U.S. Dollar when it equals 9 SDG on September 2012.

The price of raw materials, catalyst and product is fixed for the whole
period of operation.

Interest rate is taken as 15%.

Costs are determined as follows
Total capital investment Value

Fixed capital investment $

8,186,141.22
Working capital investment $
818,614.1221
Total capital Investment $
(10% working capital) 9,004,755.34
Total product cost (TPC) Value

Manufacturing cost components:

Fixed charges (depreciation, insurances and local taxes) $ 818,614.122

Direct production cost (raw materials, operating labor, utilities, ) $ 8,642,538.095

Plant overheads $ 1,999,579.888

Total Manufacturing cost $ 11,460,732.1

General expenses (administrative costs, interest, distribution costs and research) $ 4,130,177.97

Total product cost (operating cost) $ 15,590,910.07

 Sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis $1,916,913.09 cash flow diagram

Net Present value $9,421,758.741 10000000

(NPV) 9000000
8000000
Internal rate of 32.06853%
return(IRR) 7000000
6000000
Profitability Index(PI) 2.04631
5000000
Pay back period (PBP) 3.142 years 4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
income WCI TCI
Results and recommendations

Respiratory hazards in the ceramic manufacturing process are of a great

importance, therefor most care must be taken for this kind of risks.

The power consumption in ceramic manufacturing is considered very

high, so its recommended to use either more efficient equipment or more
efficient process.

Better understanding of basic raw materials of ceramic can result in

different efficient recipes.

Ceramics manufacturing is based on years of practice due to the

complications of clay minerals and their interactions.
Thank you
Any Questions