FE1001 Physics I NTU - College of Engineering

MECHANICS
1. Units, Physical Quantities
and Vectors
2. Motion Along A Straight Line
3. Motion in 2 or 3 Dimensions
4. Newton’s Law of Motion

5. Applying Newton’s Laws

6. Work and Kinetic Energy
7. Potential Energy and Energy Conservation

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FE1001 Physics I NTU - College of Engineering

MECHANICS
8. Momentum, Impulse, and
Collisions
9. Rotation of Rigid Bodies
10. Dynamics of Rotational
Motion
11. Equilibrium and Elasticity
12. Gravitation
13. Periodic Motion
14. Fluid Mechanics
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Chapter Objectives
• Understand the importance of potential energy and
gravitational potential energy.
• The fundamental principle in all science – the law of
conservation of energy.
• Conservation of elastic potential energy that allows us to
find the internal energy of the spring.
• See how work-energy theorem explains the transformation
from potential to kinetic energy.
• Derive an expression between force and potential energy.
• Learn to draw energy diagrams.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Chapter Outline
1. Gravitational Potential Energy
2. Elastic Potential Energy
3. Conservation and Nonconservative Forces
4. Force and Potential Energy
5. Energy Diagrams

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• Potential energy is the energy that associated with the position of
a system rather than its motion.
• Gravitational potential energy is the potential energy associated
with the body’s weight and its height above the ground.
• When a body falls without resistance, work is done by the
gravitational force during the vertical motion of a body from an
initial height to a final height .
ur
w
y1
y2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• The gravitational potential energy decreases if the
body moves downward.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• The gravitational potential energy increases if the
body moves upward.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• When a body’s mass m that moves along the (vertical) y-direction, with magnitude and other
forces acting on it; we called the vector sum (resultant) of all the other forces .

work done on the body by its weight is positive;

w = mg
• With reference from the previous figures, the weight and displacement are in the same direction, so the

Fother

Wgrav

Wgrav = Fs = w (y1 − y2 )= mgy1 − mgy2 (7.1)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• If the quantity is positive,
direction and vice versa. 1 (y − y )
will be positive as the weight and displacement is the same
2 W grav
• The product of the weight mg and the height y above the origin coordinate is called the gravitational
potential energy, U:

U = mgy (7.2)
(gravitational potential energy)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• We can also express the work done by W
the gravitational
grav
force during the displacement from to as y 1
y2
Wgrav = mgy1 −mgy2 = U1 −U 2
= − (U 2 − U1 )= −ΔU (7.3)
• The negative sign in front of is essential.
−ΔU
• When y increases, work done by gravitational force is negative and the
gravitational potential energy increases, .

ΔU > 0

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy
• When y decreases, work done by gravitational force is positive and the
gravitational potential energy increases, .
• The unit of potential energy is the joule (J).
ΔU < 0

• It is wrong to call
U = mgy
the “gravitational potential energy of the body.”
• The reason is that gravitational energy is a shared property of the body and the earth.
• Note that involve both the body (its mass m) and the earth (the value of g).

U = mgy

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational

Forces Only)
• When a body is falling without air resistance,
ur only
force is the body’s weight acting on it, so F other = 0 .
• Work-energy theorem states that the total work done
on the body equals the change in the body’s kinetic
energy: Wtot = ΔK = K 2 −K1
• If gravity is the only force that acts, from Eq. (7.3)
Wtot = Wgrav = −ΔU = U1 −U 2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational

Forces Only)
• Putting together we have
ΔK = −ΔU
K 2 −K1 = U1 −U 2
• If only gravity does work,
K1 + U1 = K 2 + U 2 (7.4)
or
1 2 1 2
mv1 + mgy1 = mv2 + mgy2 (7.5)
2 2
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational

Forces Only)
• Let the sum of K (kinetic) and U (potential) be E, the
total mechanical energy of the system. (E = K + U )
• Eq. (7.4) says that when the body’s weight is the only
force doing work on it, E1 = E2 .
• The total mechanical energy has the same value at
all points during the motion;
E = K + U = constant
(if only gravity does work)
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational

Forces Only)
• A quantity that always has the same value is called a
conserved quantity.
• When only the force of gravity does work, the total
mechanical energy is constant, that is conserved.
• For example when an athlete jumps, only the gravity
does work on him, ignore air resistance.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy (Gravitational

Forces Only)
• The total mechanical energy is the same at every
point in the motion, provided that no force other than
gravity does work on the body when is it thrown.
• Gravitational potential energy does not concern what height we choose, as
stays the same.
• Though and y − y1
depend on where we place the origin, the difference
2
does not change.

U1 U2

U 2 − U1 = mg (y2 − y1 )
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 Height of a baseball from energy conservation

U throw a 0.145-kg baseball straight up in the air,

giving it an initial upward velocity of magnitude
20.0m/s. Use conservation of energy to find how
high it goes, ignoring air resistance.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 Height of a baseball from energy conversion

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Identify
After the ball leaves your hand, the only force doing
work on the ball is its weight. Hence we can use
conservation of mechanical energy.
Set up
We’ll use Eqs.(7.4) and (7.5), taking point 1 to be
where the ball leaves your hand and point 2 to be
where the ball reached its maximum height. We take
the y-axis to point vertically upward. The ball’s speed
at point 1 is v1 = 20.0m/s. The ball is instantaneously at
rest at the high point of its motion (point 2), so v2 = 0.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Set up
Our target variable is how for the ball moves vertically
between these two points, so our target variable is the
displacement y2 – y1. for simplicity, let’s take the
original to be at point 1, where
r the ball leaves your
hand. Then y1 = 0 and the starget variable is just y2.
Execute
Since y1 = 0, the potential energy at point 1 is U1 =
mgy1 = 0. Furthermore, since the ball is at rest at
point 2, the kinetic energy at that point is K2 = ½mv22
= 0.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Execute
Hence Eq.(7.4), which says that K1 + U1 = K2 + U2,
becomes
K1 = U2
r
s
As the energy bar graphs shows, the kinetic energy
of the ball at point 1 is completely converted into
gravitational potential energy at point 2. At point 1
the kinetic energy is
1 2 1
K1 = mv1 = (0.145kg )(20.0m / s ) 2 = 29.0 J
2 2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Execute
This equals the gravitational potential energy U2 =
mgy2 at point 2, so
U2 29.0 J
y2 = = 2
= 20.4m
mg (0.145kg )(9.80m / s )

We can also solve the equation K1 = U2

algebraically for y2:
1 2
mv1 = mgy2
22
v1 (20.0m / s ) 2
y2 = = = 20.4 m
2 g 2(9.80m / s 2 )
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Evaluate
The mass divides out, as we should expect; we
learned in Chapter 2 that the motion of a body in
free fall doesn’t depend on its mass. Indeed, we
could have derived the result y2 = v12/2g using Eq.
(2.13).
In carrying out the calculation above, we chose the
origin to be at point 1, so y1 = 0 and U1 = 0. What
happens if we make a different choice?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.1 (SOLN)
Evaluate
As an example, suppose we choose the origin to be
5.0m below point 1, so y1 = 5.0m. With this choice
the total mechanical energy at point 1 is part kinetic
and part potential, while at point 2 it’s purely
potential energy. If you work through the calculation
again with this choice of origin, you’ll find y2 = 25.4
m; this is 20.4m above point 1, just as with the first
choice of origin. In every problem, it’s up to you to
choose the height at which U = 0; don’t agonize
over the choice, however, because the physics of
the answer doesn’t depend on your choice.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Effect of Other Forces

• When additional work Wother is taken into account, the
total work done by all other forces is
Wtot = Wgrav + Wother (7.6)
• Equating kinetic energy,
Wother + Wgrav = K 2 −K1

• From Eq. (7.3), Wgrav = U1 −U 2

Wother + U1 −U 2 = K 2 −K1

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Effect of Other Forces

• Rearrange we get
K1 + U1 + Wtot = K 2 + U 2 (7.7)

• Using appropriate expressions,

1 2 1 2
mv1 + mgy1 + Wtot = mv2 + mgy2 (7.8)
2 2
(if forces other than gravity do work)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Effect of Other Forces

• The work done by all forces other than the gravitational
force equals the change in the total mechanical energy
E = K +U
of the system, where U is the gravitational
potential energy.
• When
Wother > 0, E increases, K 2 + U 2 > K1 + U1
Wother < 0, E decreases, K 2 + U 2 < K1 + U1
Wother = 0, mechanical energy is constant

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Problem-solving strategy (Problems using

mechanical energy)
• IDENTIFY
1. Decide whether problems can be solved by energy
methods.
2. Energy approach suitable for motion with varying
forces, along a curved path, or both.
3. Not suitable for problem involving time.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Problem-solving strategy (Problems using

mechanical energy)
• SET UP
1. For energy method, decide what the initial and
final velocities and positions of the system.
2. Define coordinate system, we suggest position y-
direction upward.
3. Draw free-body diagram and identify all non-
gravitational forces that do work.
4. List all the unknown and known quantities and
decide which is the target variables.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Problem-solving strategy (Problems using

mechanical energy)
• EXECUTE
1. Write expressions involving K1, K 2 ,U1 and U 2 for
the initial and final kinetic and potential energies.
2. Relate kinetic, potential and gravitational energies
to Wother using Eq. (7.7).
3. Useful to draw bar charts showing the initial and
final values of K ,U and E = K + U .

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Problem-solving strategy (Problems using

mechanical energy)
• EVALUATE
1. Check whether your answers makes physical
sense.
2. The work done by each force must be represented
either U1 −U 2 = −ΔU or as Wother , but never in
both places.
3. The gravitational work included in Wother , make
sure you did not include it again in .
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 Work and energy throwing a baseball

In Example 7.1, suppose your hand moves up 0.50m

while you are throwing the ball, which leaves your
hand with an upward velocity of 20.0 m/s. Again
ignore air resistance. a) Assuming that your hand
exert a constant upward force on the ball, find the
magnitude of that force. b) Find the speed of the ball
at a point 15.0m above the point where it leaves
your hand.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Identify
In Example 7.1 we used conservation of mechanical
energy because only gravity did work. In this example,
however, we must also include the nongravitational
work done by your hand.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Set up
Figure (a) shows a diagram of the situation, including
a FBD for the ball while it is being thrown. The ball’s
motion occurs in two stages: while it is in contact with
your hand and after it leaves your hand. To keep track
of these stages, we let point 1 be where your hand
first starts to move, point 2 be where the ball leaves
your hand, and point 3 be where the ball isr 15.0m
above point 2. The nongravitational force F of your
hand acts only between points 1 and point 2.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Set up
Using the same coordinate system as in Example 7.1,
we have y1 = - 0.50 m, y2 = 0 and y3 = 15.0 m. The ball
starts at rest at point 1, so v1 = 0, and we are given that
the ball’s speed as it leaves your hand is v2 = 20.0m/s.
Our target variables are (a) magnitude F of the force of
your hand and (b) the speed v3 at point 3.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute r
a)To determine the magnitude of F , we’ll first use Eq.
(7.7) to calculate the work Wother done by this force,
we have
K1 = 0.
2
U1 = mgy1 = (0.145kg )(9.80m / s )(−0.50m) = −0.71J
1 2 1
K 2 = mv2 = (0.145kg )(20.0m / s ) 2 = 29.0 J
2 2
U 2 = mgy2 = (0.145kg )(9.80m / s 2 )(0) = 0

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute
The initial potential energy U1 is negative because the
ball initially below the origin. According to Eq.(7.7)
K1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U 2 , so
Wother = ( K 2 −K1 ) + (U 2 −U1 )
= (29.0 J −0) + (0 −(−0.71J )) = 29.7 J
The kinetic energy of the ball increase by K2 – K1 =
29.0J, and the potential energy increase by U2 – U1 =
0.71J; the sum is E2 – E1, the change in total mechanical
energy, which is equal to Wother.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute
r
Assuming that the upward force F that your hand
applies is constant, the work Wother done by this force is
equal to the magnitude F of the force multiplied by the
upward displacement y2 – y1 over which it acts:
Wother = F ( y2 − y 1)
Wother 29.7 J
F= = = 59 N
y2 − y1 0.50m
This is about 40 times greater than the weight of the
ball.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute
b) To find the speed at point 3, note that between
point 2 and point 3, total mechanical energy is
conserved; the force of your hand no longer acts, so
Wother = 0. we can then find the kinetic energy at
point 3 using Eq.(7.4):
K 2 + U 2 = K3 + U 3
U 3 = mgy3 = (0.145kg )(9.80m / s 2 )(15.0m) = 21.3 J
K3 = ( K 2 + U 2 ) −U 3 = (29.0 J + 0 J ) −21.3 J = 7.7 J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute 1
2
Since K3 = mv3 y , where v3 y is the y-component of
2
the ball’s velocity at point 3, we have
2 K3 2(7.7 J )
v3 y =± =± = ±10m / s
m 0.145kg

The significant of the plus-or-minus sign is that the

ball passes point 3 twice, once on the way up and
again on the way down. The total mechanical energy
E is constant and equal to 29.0J while the ball is in
free fall, and the potential energy at point 3 is U3 =
21.3J whether the ball is moving up or down.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Execute
So at point 3, the ball’s kinetic energy K3 and speed
don’t depend on the direction the ball is moving. The
velocity v3y is positive (+10m/s) when the ball is
moving up and negative (10m/s) when it is moving
down; the speed v3 is 10 m/s in either case.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.2 (SOLN)
Evaluate
As a check on our result, recall from Example 7.1 that
the ball reaches a maximum height y = 20.4m. At that
point all of the kinetic energy that the ball had when it
left your hand at y = 0 has been converted to
gravitational potential energy. At y = 15.0m, the ball is
about three-fourths of its mechanical energy should
be in the form of potential energy. Can you show that
this is true from our results for K3 and U3?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy for Motion Along a

Curved Path
• When a body moves along a path which is slanted as
shown,
ur ur the body is acted on by the gravitational
ur force
w = mg F other
and possibly by other forces we called .

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy for Motion Along a

Curved Path
• To find the work done by gravitational force during
this displacement,
r we divided the path up into small
segment Δ s .

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy for Motion Along a

Curved Path
ur ur
• In terms of unit vectors, the force is w = mg = mg $j
r −
and the displacement is Δ s = Δxi$+ Δy $j.
ur r
$ $
($
• The work done is w ⋅Δs = −mg j ⋅ Δxi + Δy j = −mg Δy. )
• Every segment has the same work done by the
gravity.
• Thus the total work done is
Wgrav = −mg (y2 − y1 )= mgy2 − mgy1 = U1 − U 2
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational Potential Energy for Motion Along a

Curved Path
• This work is unaffected by any horizontal motion that
may occur.
• We can use the same expression for gravitational potential
energy whether the body’s path is curved or straight.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.3 Energy in projectile motion

A batter hits two identical baseballs with the some

initial speed and height but different initial angles.
Prove that at a given height h, both balls have the
same speed of air resistance can be neglected.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.3 (SOLN)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.3 (SOLN)
If there is no air resistance, the only force acting on
each ball after it is hit is its height. Hence the total
mechanical energy for each ball is constant. Figure
shows the trajectories of two balls batted at the same
height with the same initial speed, and thus the same
total mechanical energy, but with different initial
angles. At all points at the same height the potential
energy is the same. Thus the kinetic energy at this
height must be the same for both balls, and the speed
are the same.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 Maximum height of a projectile using energy methods

In Example 3.10 (Section 3.3) we derived an

expression for the maximum height h of a projectile
launched with initial speed vo at initial angle ao:
2 2
vo sin α o
h=
2g

Derive this expression using energy considerations.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up
We neglect air resistance, so just as in Example 7.3,
total mechanical energy is conserved. Let point 1 at
y = 0 be the launch point, where the speed is v1 = v0,
and let point 2 at y = h be the highest point on the
trajectory. Our target variable is the maximum height
h, at which the kinetic energy is minimum and the
gravitational potential energy is maximum. This
appears to be an easy problem: the potential energy
at point 2 is U2 = mgh, so it may seem that all we
need to do is solve the energy-conservation
equation K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 for U2.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up
However, while we know the initial kinetic and
potential energies (K1 = ½ mv12 = ½ mv02 and U1 = 0),
we don’t know the speed or kinetic energy at point 2.
to get around this issue, we’ll use two results from
our study of projectile motion in Chapter 3: (1) the x-
component of acceleration is zero, so the x-
component of velocity is constant, and (2) the y-
component of velocity is zero at point 2 (the highest
point of the trajectory).

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)
Execute
We can express the kinetic energy at each point in
terms of the components of velocity, using v2 = vx2 +
vy3: 1
K1 = m(v12x + v12y )
2
1
K 2 = m(v22x + v22 y )
2
Conservation of energy then gives K1 + U 1 = K2 +
U2, so
1 2 2 1 2 2
m(v1x + v1 y ) + 0 = m(v2 x + v2 y ) + mgh
2 2
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)
Execute
To simplify this, we multiply through by 2/m to obtain
2 2 2 2
v1x + v1 y = v2 x + v2 y + 2 gh
Now we use results from projectile motion. Since the
x-component of velocity doesn’t change, v1x = v2x and
we can cancel the vx2 terms from both sides of the
equation given above. Furthermore, because the
projectile has zero vertical velocity at the highest point
of its motion, v2y = 0. Hence we get
2
v1 y = 2 gh

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.4 (SOLN)
Execute
But v1y is just the y-component of initial velocity,
which is equal to v0 sin α 0 . Making this substitution
and solving for h, we find
2 2
v0 sin α 0
h=
2g
Evaluate
This agrees with the result of Example 3.10, as it
must.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 Calculating speed along a vertical circle

Your cousin Throckmorton skateboards down a

curved playground ramp. Treating Throcky and his
skateboard as a particle, he moves through a quarter-
circle with radius R. The total mass of Throcky and his
skateboard is 25.0kg. He starts from rest and there is
no friction. (a) Find his speed at the bottom of the
curve.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Identify
We can’t use the equations of motion with constant
acceleration isn’t constant because the slope
decreases as Throcky descend. Instead, we’ll use the
energy approach. Since Throcky moves along a
circular arc, we’ll also use what we learned about
circular motion is Section 5.4.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Set up
Since there is no friction, the only force
r other than
Throcky’s weight is the normal force n exerted by the
ramp (Fig. b). Although this forcer acts all along the
path, it does zero work because n is perpendicular to
Throcky’s velocity at every point. Hence Wother = 0
and mechanical energy is conserved.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Set up
Take point 1 at the starting point and point 2 at the
bottom of the curved ramp, and let y = 0 be at the
bottom of the ramp. Then y1 = R and y2 = 0. (We are
treating Throcky as if his entire mass were
concentrated at his center.) Throcky starts at rest at
the top, so v1 = 0. Our target variable in part (a) is his
speed at the bottom, v2. In part (b) we want to find
the magnitude n of the normal force at point 2. As this
force does no work, it doesn’t appear in the energy
equation, so we’ll use Newton’s second law instead.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Execute
a)The various energy quantities are
K1 = 0 U1 = mgR
K2 = ½ mv22 U2 = 0
From conservation of energy,
K1 + U1 = K2
1 +2U2
0 + mgR = mv2 + 0
2
v2 = 2 gR

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Execute
The speed is the same as if Throcky had fallen
vertically through a height R, and it is independent of
his mass. As a numerical example, let R = 3.00 m.
Then
v2 = 2(9.80m / s 2 )(3.00m) = 7.67 m / s

Notice that this answer doesn’t depend on the ramp

being circular; no matter what the shape of the ramp.
Throcky will have the same speed v2 = 2 gR at the
bottom. This would be true even if the wheels of his
skateboard lost contact with the ramp during the ride,
because only the gravitational force would still do work.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Execute
b) To find n at point 2 using Newton’s second law, we
need the FBD at that point. Fig.b. At point 2, Throcky
is moving at speed v2 = 2 gR in a circle of radius R;
his acceleration is toward the center of the circle and
has magnitude
v22 2 gR
arad = = = 2g
R R
If we take the positive y-direction to be upward, the u-
component of Newton’s second law is
∑F y = n + (−w) = marad = 2mg
n = w + 2mg = 3mg
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Execute
At point 2 the normal force is three time Throcky’s
weight. This result is independent of the radius of the
circular ramp. We learned in Example 5.10 (Section
5.2) and Example 5.25 (Section 5.4) that the
magnitude of n is the apparent weight, so Throcky
feels as though he weighs three times his true weight
mg. But as soon as he reaches the horizontal part of
the ramp to the right of point 2, the normal force
decreases to w = mg and Throcky feels normal again.
Can you see why?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.5 (SOLN)
Evaluate
This example shows a general rule about the role of
forces in problems in which we use energy
techniques: What matters is not simply whether a
force acts, but whether that force does work. If does
not appear at all in Eq.(7.7), K1 + U1 +Wother = K2 + U2.
Notice we had to use both the energy approach and
Newton’s second law to solve this problem;
r energy
r
conservation gave us the speed and ∑F = ma gave
us the normal force. For each part of the problem we
used the technique that most easily led us to the
answer.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.6 A vertical circle with friction
In Example 7.5, suppose that the ramp is not
frictionless and that Throcky’s speed at the bottom is
only 6.00 m/s. What work was done by the friction
force acting on him? Use R = 3.00m.
Identify and Set up
We use the same coordinate system and the same
initial and the same initial and final points as in
Example 7.5. Again the normal forcer does no work,
but now there is a friction force f that does do work.
Hence the nongravitational work done on Throcky
between points 1 and 2, Wother, is just equal to the
work done by friction, Wf. This is our target variable,
which we’ll find using Eq.(7.7).
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.6 (SOLN)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.6 (SOLN)
Execute
The energy quantities are
K1 = 0
U1 = mgR = (25.0kg )(9.80m / s 2 )(3.00m) = 735 J
1 2 1 2
K 2 = mv2 = (25.0kg )(6.00m / s ) = 450 J
2 2
U2 = 0
From Eq.(7.7),
W f = K 2 + U 2 −K1 −U1
= 450 J + 0 −0 −735 J = −285 J
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.6 (SOLN)
Execute
The work done by the friction force is -285J, and the
total mechanical energy decreases by 285J. Do you
see why Wf has to be negative?

Evaluate
Throcky’s
r motion
r is determined by Newton’s second
law ∑F = ma . But it would be very difficult to apply the
second law directly to this problem because the
normal and friction forces and the acceleration are
continuously changing in both magnitude and
direction as Throcky skates down. The energy
approach, by contrast
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.6 (SOLN)
Evaluate
The energy approach, by contrast, relates the motion
at the top and bottom of the ramp without involving the
details of what happens in between. Many problems
are easy if energy considerations are used but very
complex it we try to use Newton’s laws directly.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 An inclined plane with friction
We want to load a 12-kg crate into a truck by sliding it
up a ramp 2.5m long, inclined at 30o. A worker, giving
no thought to friction, calculates that he can get the
crate up the ramp by giving it an initial speed of 5.0m/s
at the bottom and letting it go. But friction is not
negligible; the crate slides 1.6m up the ramp, stops,
and slides back down. A) Assuming that the friction
force acting on the crate is constant, find its magnitude.
b) How fast is the crate moving when it reaches the
bottom of the ramp?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 An inclined plane with friction

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Identify
The friction force does work on the crate as it slides. As
in Example 7.2, we’ll use the energy approach in part
(a) to find the magnitude of the nongravitational force
that does work (in this case, friction). Once we know the
magnitude of the friction force, we can calculate how
much nongravitational work this force does as the crate
slides back down. We can then use the energy
approach again to find the crate’s speed at the bottom
of the ramp.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Set up
The first part of the motion is from point 1, at the bottom
of the ramp, to point 2, where the crate stops
instantaneously. In the second part of the motion, the
crate returns to the bottom of the ramp, which we’ll call
point 3. We’ll take y = 0 (and hence U = 0) to be at
ground level, so y1 = 0, y2 = (1.6m)sin30o = 0.80m, and y3
= 0. We are given that v1 = 5.0m/s and v2 = 0 (the crate is
instantaneously at rest at point 2). Our target variable in
part (a) is f, the magnitude of the friction force, which
we’ll find using Eq.(7.7). In part (b) our target variable is
v3, the speed at the bottom of the ramp.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Execute
a) The energy quantities are
1
K1 = (12kg )(5.0m / s )2 = 150 J U1 = 0
2 2
K2 = 0 U 2 = (12 kg )(9.8m / s )(0.80m) = 94 J
Wother = −fs
Here is the unknown magnitude of the friction force
and sf = 1.6m. Using Eq.(7.7), we find
K1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U 2
Wother = −fs = ( K 2 + U 2 ) −( K1 + U1 )

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Execute
( K 2 + U 2 ) −( K1 + U1 )
f =
s

=
[
(0 + 94 J ) − (150 J + 0) ]
= 35 N
1.6m

The friction force of 35N, acting over 1.6m, causes the

mechanical energy of the crate to decrease from 150J
to 94J (Fig.c).

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Execute
b) The crate returns to point 3 at the bottom of the
ramp; y3 = 0 and U3 = 0 (Fig.b). On the way down, the
friction force and the displacement both reverse
direction but have the same magnitudes, so the friction
work has the same negative value for each half of the
trip. The total work done by friction between points 1
and 3 is
Wother = W fric = −2 fs = −2(35 N )(1.6m) = −112 J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Execute
From part (a), K1 = 150J and U1 = 0. Equation (7.7) then
gives
K1 + U1 + Wother = K3 + U 3
K3 = K1 + U1 −U 3 + Wother
= 150 J + 0 −0 + (−112 J ) = 38 J
The crate returns to the bottom of the ramp with only
38J of the original 150J of mechanical energy (Fig.c).
Using K3 = ½ mv32, we get
2(38 J )
v3 = = 2.5m / s
12kg
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.7 (SOLN)
Evaluate
Notice that the crate’s speed when it returns to the
bottom of the ramp, v3 = 2.5 m/s, is less than the speed
v1 = 5.0 m/s at which it left that point. That’s good –
energy was lost due to friction.
Notice also that in part (b) we applied Eq.(7.7) to point
1 and 3, considering the entire round trip as a whole.
Alternatively, we could have considered the second
part of the motion by itself and applied Eq.(7.7) to point
2 and 3. Try it and see whether you get the same result
for v3.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• Elastic potential energy is the storing energy in a body.
• A body is said to be elastic if it returns to its original shape and size after being deformed, e,g. a spring.
• To stretch a spring by a distance x, we need to exert a force , where k is the force constant of the
spring and provided that x is sufficiently small.

F = kx

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• The figure shows an ideal spring attached to a mass m moving along x-direction.
• The body is at when the spring is neither stretched nor compressed.

x =0

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• When the block is stretched to a distance and released, how
much work is done from to ? x1 x2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• Therefore from Section 6.3, we find that the work
done on the spring is
1 2 1 2
W = kx2 − kx1
2 2
where k is the force constant of the spring.
• Stretching of spring is doing positive work on the spring and releasing is do
negative work.
• If we need to find the work done by the spring,

1 2 1 2
Wel = kx1 − kx2
2 2
where “el” stands for elastic.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• When x1and x2 are positive and x2 > x1, the spring
does negative work.
• When x1and x2 are positive and x2 < x1, the spring
does positive work.
• We define elastic potential energy as:
1 2
U = kx (7.9)
2
(elastic potential energy)
• The unit of U is joule (J), same unit for all energy
and work quantities.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• Using Eq. (7.9) to express the work done by the
elastic force in terms of the change in potential
energy:
1 2 1 2
Wel = kx1 − kx2 = U1 −U 2 = −ΔU (7.10)
2 2
• When spring is stretched, isWnegative
el and U increases.
• When spring relaxes, is negative and U decreases, the
spring loses elastic potential
W energy. el

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• The graph of elastic potential energy for an ideal spring is a parabola:
, where x is the extension or compression of the spring.
• For extension (stretching), x is positive.
• For compression (when that is possible), x is negative.
• Elastic potential energy U is never negative.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
1 2
• Difference between U = mgy and U = kx
2 is that we do not have
the freedom to choose x =wherever
to be 0 we wish.
• To be consistence, must
x= 0 be the position where the spring is
neither stretched nor compressed.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• If elastic force is the only force that does work on
the body, then
Wtot = Wel −U1 −U 2
• The work-energy theorem Wtot = K 2 −K1 then
gives us
K1 + U1 = K 2 + U 2 (7.12)
(if only the elastic force does work)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy
• U is given by Eq. (7.9), so
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv1 + kx1 = mv2 + kx2 (7.12)
2 2 2 2
(if only the elastic force does work)
• In this case, the total mechanical energy E = K + U
(the sum of kinetic and elastic potential energy)
is conserved.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy

• All along we are only discussing ideal spring that is massless in order Eq. (7.12)
to be correct.
• We neglect the mass of spring if its mass is less than the mass m of the body
attached to the spring.
• If forces other than elastic force also do work on the body, then the total work is

Wtot = Wel + Wother

Wel + Wother = K 2 −K1

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy

• The work done by the spring is still Wel = U1 −U 2 .

• So again,
K1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U 2 (7.13)

(if forces other than the elastic force does work)

and
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mv1 + kx1 + Wother = mv2 + kx2 (7.14)
2 2 2 2
(if forces other than the elastic force does work)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy

• The equation shows that the work done by all forces other than the elastic force
equals the change in the total mechanical energy of the system, where U
is the elastic potential energy.
• When is positive, E increases. = K + U is negative, E decreases.
EWhen

Wother Wother

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy

Situations with Both Gravitational and Elastic

Potential Energy
• When we have both gravitational and elastic energy,
we have U = U grav + U el .
• In general form,
K1 + U grav + U el ,1 + Wother + K 2 + U grav,2 + U el ,2 (7.15)
• The work done by all forces other than the
gravitational force or elastic force equals the change in
the total mechanical energy E = K + U of the system,
where U is the sum of the gravitational potential energy
and the elastic potential energy.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.2 Elastic Potential Energy

Situations with Both Gravitational and Elastic

Potential Energy
• If only gravitational and elastic forces are acting on
the body, the total mechanical energy is conserved.
• The work done by the gravitational and elastic force
is accounted for by their potential energies; the work
of the other forces, Wother has to be included
separately.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 Motion with elastic potential energy
In Fig.a shown in the nest slide, a glider with mass m =
0.200kg sits on a frictionless horizontal air track,
connected to a spring with force constant k = 5.00N/m.
You pull on the glider, stretching the spring 0.100m,
and then release it with no initial velocity (Fig. b). The
glider begins to move back toward its equilibrium
position (x = 0). What is its x-velocity when x =
0.080m?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 Motion with elastic potential energy

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 (SOLN)
Identify
Because the spring force varies with position, this
problem can’t be solved with the equations for motion
with constant acceleration. Instead, we’ll use the
energy method to find a simple solution. In particular,
we’ll use the idea that as the glider starts to move,
elastic potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy. (The glider remains at the same height
throughout the motion, so gravitational potential energy
is not a factor.)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 (SOLN)
Set up
The spring force is the only force doing the work on the
glider, so Wother = 0 and we may use Eq.(7.11). Let point
1 be where the glider is released (Fig. b), and let point
2 be at x = 0.080m variable is the x-velocity at point 2,
v2x.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 (SOLN)
Execute
The energy quantities are
1
K1 = (0.200kg )(0) 2 = 0
2
1 2
U1 = (5.00n / m)(0.100m) = 0.0250 J
2
1 2
K 2 = mv2 x
2
1
U 2 = (5.00 N / m)(0.080m) 2 = 0.0160 J
2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 (SOLN)
Execute
Then from Eq. (7.11),
K 2 = K1 + U1 −U 2 = 0 + 0.0250 J −0.0160 J = 0.0090 J

2K2 2(0.0090 J )
v2 x =± =± = ±0.30m / s
m 0.200kg
We choose the negative root because the glider is
moving in the – x-direction; the answer we want is v2x
= -0.30m/s.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.8 (SOLN)
Evaluate
What is the meaning of the second solution, v2x =
+0.30m/s? Eventually the spring will compress and
push the glider back to the right in the positive x-
direction. (see Fig.d). The second solution tells us that
when the glider passes through x = 0.080m while
moving to the right, its speed will be 0.30m/s – the
same speed as when it passed through this point while
moving to the left. When the glider passes through the
point x = 0, the spring is relaxed and all of the
mechanical energy is in the form of kinetic energy. Can
you show that the speed of the glider at this point is
0.50m/s?
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.9 Motion with elastic potential energy and work done by
other forces

For the system of Example 7.8, suppose the glider is

initially at rest at x = 0, with the
r spring unstretched. You
then apply a constant force F in the + x-direction with
magnitude 0.610N to the glider. What is the glider’s
velocity when it has moved to x = 0.100m?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.9 (SOLN)
Identify
r
Although the force F you apply is constant, the spring
force isn’t, so the acceleration of the glider won’t be
constant. Total mechanical energy is not r conserved
because of the work done by the force F, but we can
still use the energy relation as given by Eq.(7.13).
Set up
Let point 1 be at x = 0, where the velocity is v1x = 0, and
let point 2 be at x = 0.100m. (These points are different
from the ones labeled in figure in Example 7.8.) our
target variable is v2x, the velocity at point 2.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.9 (SOLN)
Execute
The energy quantities are
K1 = 0 U1 = 0
1 2 1 2
K 2 = mv2 x U 2 = (5.00 N / m)(0.100m)
2 2
= 0.0250J
Wother = (0.610 N )(0.100m) = 0.0610 J
(To calculate Wother we multiplied the magnitude of
the force by the displacement, since both are in the +
x-direction.) Initially, the total mechanical
r energy is
zero; the work done by the force F increases the total
mechanical energy to 0.0610J, of which 0.0250J is
elastic potential energy.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.9 (SOLN)
Execute
The remainder is kinetic energy. From Eq.(7.13),
K1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U 2
K 2 = K1 + U1 + Wother −U 2
= 0 + 0 + 0.0610 J −0.0250 J = 0.0360 J
2K2 2(0.0360 J )
v2 x = = = 0.60m / s
m 0.200kg

We choose the positive square root because the

glider is moving in the + x-direction.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.9 (SOLN)
Evaluate
To test our answer, think what would be different
r if we
disconnected the glider from the spring. Then F would
be the only force doing work, there would be zero
potential energy at all times, and Eq.(7.13) would give
us K 2 = K1 + Wother = 0 + 0.0610 J
2K2 2(0.0610 J )
v2 x = = = 0.78m / s
m 0.200kg
We found a lower velocity than this value that use the
spring does negative work on the glider as it stretches
(Fig. 7.13b in Example 7.8.)
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.10 Motion with elastic potential energy after other forces
have ceased
r
In Example 7.9, suppose the force F is removed when
the glider reaches the point x = 0.100m. How much
farther does the glider move before coming to rest?

Identify
r
After F is removed, the spring force is the only force
doing work. Hence for this part of the motion the
mechanical energy E = K + U is conserved.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.10 (SOLN)
Set up
We’ll let point 2 be at x = 0.100m, as in Example 7.9,
and let point 3 be where the glider comes
instantaneously to rest. Our target variable is the
coordinate x3 of this point. We’ll find its value using the
conservation of energy expressions, Eq.(7.11), along
with the relation U = ½ kx2 for elastic potential energy.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.10 (SOLN)
Execute
We saw in Example 7.9 that the kinetic and potential
energies at point 2 are K2 = 0.0360J and U2 = 0.0250J.
The total mechanical energy at and beyond this point is
therefore K2 + U2 = 0.0610J. When the glider comes to
rest at x = x3, the kinetic energy K3 is zero and the
elestic potential energy U3 is equal to the total
mechanical energy 0.0610J. We can also see this from
K2 + U2 = K3 + U3:
U3 = K2 + U2 – K3 = 0.0360J + 0.0250J – 0 0.0610J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.10 (SOLN)
Execute
1 2
But U 3 = kx3 , so
2
2U 3 2(0.0610 J )
x3 = = = 0.156m
k 5.00 N / m
The body moves an additional 0.056 m after the force is
removes at x = 0.100m.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.10 (SOLN)
Evaluate
The total mechanical energy for the motion from point 2
to point 3 is 0.0610J,
r the same as the work Wother
done by the force F in Example 7.8. Is this just
coincidence? Not at all, the system of glider and spring
had zero mechanical energy initially (at point 1 in
Example 7.9), so all ther mechanical energy it has came
from the work done by F.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 Motion with gravitational, elastic, and friction forces

In a “worst-case” design scenario, a 2000-kg elevator

with broken cables is falling at 25 m/s when it first
contacts a cushioning spring at the bottom of the shaft.
The spring is supposed to stop the elevator,
compressing 3.00m as it does so. During the motion a
safety clamp applies a constant 17,000-N frictional force
to the elevator. As a design consultant, you are asked to
determine what the force constant of the spring should
be.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Identify
We’ll use the energy approach to determine the force
constant, which appears in the expression for elastic
potential energy. Furthermore, total mechanical energy
is not conserved because the friction force does
negative work Wother on the elevator.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Set up
Since mechanical energy isn’t conserved and more than
one kind of potential energy is involved, we’ll use the
most general form of the energy relation, Eq.(7.15). We
take point 1 as the position of the bottom of the bottom
of the elevator when it initially contacts the spring, and
take point 2 as its position when it is at rest. We choose
the origin to be at point 1, so y1 = 0 and y2 = -3.00m. With
this choice the coordinate of the upper end of the spring
is the same as the coordinate of the elevator, so the
elastic potential energy at any point between point 1
and point 2 is Uel = ½ky2. ( The gravitational potential
energy is Ugrav = mgy as usual.)
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Set up
We know the initial and final speeds of the elevator
and the magnitude of the friction force, so the only
unknown is the force constant k (our target variable).
Execute
The elevator’s initial speed is v1 = 25m/s, so the initial
kinetic energy is
1 2 1
K1 = mv = (2000kg )(25m / s ) 2 = 625,000 J
2 2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Execute
The elevator stop at point 2, so K2 = 0. The potential
energy at point 1, U1, is zero; Ugrav is zero because
y1 = 0, and Uel = 0 because the spring is not yet
compressed. At point 2 there is both gravitational and
elastic potential energy, so
1 2
U 2 = mgy2 + ky2
2
The gravitational potential energy at point 2 is
2
mgy2 = (2000kg )(9.80m / s )(−3.00m) = −58,800 J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Execute
The other force is the 17,000-N friction force, acting
opposite to the 3.00-m displacement, so
Wother = −(17,000 N )(3.00m) = −51,000 J

Putting these term into K1 + 0 + Wother = K 2 + U 2, we

have 1 2
K1 + 0 + Wother = 0 + (mgy2 + ky2 )
2

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Execute
So the force constant of the spring is
2( K1 + Wother −mgy2 )
k= 2
y2
2 [625,000 J + (−51,000 J ) − (−58,800 J ) ]
=
(−3.00m) 2
= 1.41 ×105 N / m

This is comparable to the spring in an automobile

suspension

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Evaluate
Let’s note what might seem to be a paradox in this
problem. The elastic potential energy in the spring at
point 2 is
1 2 1
ky2 = (1.41 ×105 N / m)(−3.00m) 2 = 632,800 J
2 2
This is more than the total mechanical energy at point
1,
E1 = K1 + U1 = 625,000 J + 0 = 625,000 J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Evaluate
But the friction force caused the mechanical energy of
the system to decrease by 51,000J between point 1 and
point 2. Does this mean that energy appeared from
nowthere? Don’t panic; there is no paradox. At point 2
there is also negative gravitational potential energy
mgy2 = -58,800J because point is below the origin. The
total mechanical energy at point 2 is
1 2
E2 = K 2 + U 2 = 0 + ky2 + mgy2
2
= 632,800 J + (−58,800 J ) = 574,000 J

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Evaluate
This is just the initial mechanical energy of 625,000J,
minus 51,000J lost to friction.
Your next jobs as design consultant would be to tell
your clients that the elevator won’t stay at the bottom of
the shaft. Instead, it will bounce back up. The reason is
that at point 2 the compressed spring exerts an upward
force of magnitude Fspring = (1.41x 105 N/m)(3.00m) =
422,000N. The weight of the elevator is only w = mg =
(200kg)(9.80m/s2) = 19,600N, so the net force will be
upward.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.11 (SOLN)
Evaluate
The elevator bounces back upward even if the safety
clamp now exerts a downward friction force of
magnitude f = 17,000N; the spring force is greater than
the sum of f and mg. The elevator will spring bounce
again and again until enough mechanical energy has
been removed by friction for it to stop.
Can you also show that the acceleration of the falling
elevator when it hits the spring is unacceptably high?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
• A force that conserve the amount of energy between kinetic and potential energies is called a
conservative force.
• For any conservative force the work done by that force depends on the end points, not on the
path taken.
• From the diagram, the gravitational force is conservative and it does the same work on the
runner no matter what path he takes from point 1 to point 2, the mechanical energy is constant.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
• The work done by a conservative force always has these properties:
1. It can always be expressed as the difference
between the initial and final values of a potential
energy function.
2. It is reversible.
3. It is dependent of the path of the body and
depends only on the starting and ending points.
4. When the starting and ending points are the
same, the total work is zero.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
• When the only forces that do work are conservative forces, the total mechanical energy
is constant.
• A force that is not conservative is called nonconservative force.
• The work done by a nonconservative force cannot be represented by a potential-energy
E = K +U
function and can also cause mechanical energy to be lost or dissipate, which is called
dissipative force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 Friction work depends on path
You are rearranging your furniture and wish to move a
40.0kg futon 2.50 m across the room. However, the
straight-line path is blocked by a heavy coffee table
that you don't want to move. Instead, you slide the
futon in a dogleg path over the floor; the doglegs are
2.00 m and 1.50 m long. Compared to the straight-line
path, how much work must you do to push the futon in
the dogleg path? The coefficient of kinetic friction is
0.200.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 Friction work depends on path

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 (SOLN)
Identify
Here work is done both by you and by the force of
friction, so we must use the energy relation that
includes forces other than elastic or gravitational
forces. We’ll use this relation to find a connection
between the work that you do and the work done by
friction.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 (SOLN)
Set up
Figure shows the initial and final points. The futon at
the rest at both point 1 and point 2, so K1 = K2 = 0. The
gravitational potential energy does not change because
the futon moves only horizontally; to be specific, we’ll
say U1 = U2 = 0. From Eq.(7.7) it follows that Wother = 0.
The other work done on the futon is the sum of the
positive work you do, Wyou, and the negative work Wfric
done by the kinetic friction force. Since the sum of
these is zero, we have Wyou = -Wfric. Thus to determine
Wyou, we’ll calculate the work done by friction.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 (SOLN)
Execute
Because the floor is horizontal, the normal force on the
futon equals its weight mg, and the magnitude of the
friction force is f k = μk n = μk mg . The work you must do
over each path id then
W you = −W fric = −(−f k s ) = +μk mgs
= (0.200)(40.0kg )(9.80m / s 2 )(2.50m)
= 196J (straight-line path)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.12 (SOLN)
Execute
W you = −W fric
2
= (0.200)(40.0kg )(9.80m / s )(2.00m + 1.50m)
= 274J (dogleg path)
The extra work you must do is 274J – 196J = 78J
Evaluate
The work done by friction is Wfric = -Wyou = -196J on the
straight-line path, and -274J on the dogleg. The work
done by friction depends on the path taken, which
illustrates that friction is a nonconservative force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 Conservative or nonconservative?
r
In a certain region of space on an election is F = C x ˆj ,
where C is a positive constant. The election moves in a
counter-clockwise direction around a square loop in the
xy-plane. The corners of the square are at (x,y) = (0,0),
(L,0), (L,L) and (0,L).rCalculate the work done on the
electron by the forceF during one complete trip around
the square. Is this force conservative or
nonconservative?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 Conservative or nonconservative?

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up
In Example 7.12 the force of the friction was constant
in magnitude and always opposite to the displacement,
so it was easy to calculate
r the work done. Here,
however, the force F is not constant and in general is
not in the same direction as the displacement. So we’ll
use the more general expression for work, Eq.(6.14):
P2 r r
W = ∫ F gdl
p1
r
Where dl is an infinitesimal displacement.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up r
Let’s calculate the work done by the force F on each
leg of the square and then add the results to find the
work done on the round trip.
Execute
On the first leg, from (0,0) to (L,)), the force varies but is
everywhere
r r perpendicular to the displacement. So
F gdl = 0 r
, and the work done onFthe = CLj ˆ leg is W1 = 0.
first
The force has the same value everywhere on
the second leg from (L,0) to (L,L).
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Execute
The
r displacement on this leg is in the +y-direction, so
dl = dyjˆ r r
and F gdl = CLjˆgdyjˆ = CLdy
The work done on the second leg is then
( L, L ) r r y −L L
W2 = ∫ F gdl = ∫ CLdy = CL ∫ dy = CL2
( L ,0) y −0 0
r
On the third leg, from (L,L) to (0,L), F is again
perpendicular to the displacement so W3 = 0. The force
is zero on the final leg, from (0,L) to (0, 0 ), so no work
is done and W4 = 0.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Execute r
The work done by the force F on the round trip is
W = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4 = 0 + CL2 + 0 + 0 = CL2
The starting and ending
r points are the same, but the
total work done by F is not zero. This is a conservative
force; it cannot be represented by a potential energy
function.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Evaluate
Because W is positive, the mechanical energy of the
electron increases as it goes around the loop. This is
not a mathematical curiosity; it’s a description of what
happens in an electrical generating plant. A loop of
wire is moved through a magnetic field, which gives
rise to a nonconservative force similar to the one in this
example. Electrons in the wire gain energy as they
move around the loop, and this energy is carried via
transmission lines to the customer. (We’ll discuss how
this work in detail in Chapter 29.) All the electrical
energy used in the home and in industry comes from
work done by nonconservative forces!
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.13 (SOLN)
Evaluate
How would the value of W change if the electron went
around ther loop clockwise instead of
counterclockwise?
F The force wouldr be unaffected,
dl
but the direction of each infinitesimal displacement
would reverse. Thus the sign of work would also
reverse, and the work for a clockwise round trip would
be W = -CL2. This is a different behavior than the
nonconservative friction force. When a body slides
over a stationary surface with friction, the work done by
friction is always negative, no matter what the direction
of motion (see Example 7.7 in Section 7.1).
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

The Law of Conservation of Energy

• When a car brakes, the tires and road surface
becomes hot. This type of energy that relates with
this change in state of the material is called internal
energy.
• Raising the temperature will increase the internal
energy and vice versa.
• Experiments show that change in internal energy is
exactly equal to the absolute value of the work done
by friction is ΔU int = −Wother .
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

The Law of Conservation of Energy

• Experiments show that change in internal energy is
exactly equal to the absolute value of the work done
by friction,
ΔU int = −Wother
where ΔU int is the change in internal energy.
• Substitute this into Eq. (7.7),
K1 + U1 −ΔU int = K 2 + U 2
ΔK + ΔU + ΔU int = 0 (7.16)
(law of conservation of energy)
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

The Law of Conservation of Energy

• Law of conservation of energy states that energy is
never created or destroy; it only changes form.
• Energy can be convert from one form to another, and
at the same time lost in the form of friction and heat
energy.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.14 Work done by friction
Let’s look again at Example 7.6 in Section 7.1, in which
your cousin Throcky skateboards down a curved ramp.
He starts with zero kinetic energy and 735J of potential
energy, and at the bottom he has 450J of kinetic
energy and zero potential energy. So ΔK = +450 J and
ΔU = −735 J . The work Wother = Wfric done by the
nonconservative friction forces is -285J, so the change
in internal energy is ΔU int = −Wother = +285 J.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.14 Work done by friction
The wheels, the bearings, and the ramp all get a little
warmer as Throcky rolls down. In accordance with Eq.
(7.16), the sum of the energy changes equals zero:
ΔK + ΔU + ΔU int = +450 J + (−735 J ) + 285 J = 0

The total energy of the system (including

nonmechanical forms of energy) is conserved.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• In physics, there will be situations that you are given an expression for the
potential energy as a function of position and have to find the corresponding force.
• Consider a force motion along x-direction by a function and the potential
energy as U(x). Recall for any displacement, the work done is
, for a small displacement ,

Fx ( x)

W = −ΔU Δx
Fx (x )Δx = −ΔU
ΔU
Fx (x )= −
Δx
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• Therefore, dU (x )
Fx (x )= − (7.17)
dx
(force from potential energy, one dimension)
• This equation tells us that when U increases F also increase, which is great
amount of work is needed for a distance, x, and corresponds to a larger
force magnitude.
• Also when is in the positive x-direction, U(x) decreases with increasing
x.

Fx (x )

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• The physical meaning is that a conservative force always acts to

push the system toward lower potential energy.
• When substituting into Eq. (7.17),we get the
1 2 by an ideal spring,
correct expression for the force exerted
U (x )= kx
2

d ⎛1 2 ⎞
Fx (x )= − ⎜ kx ⎟ = −kx
dx ⎝ 2 ⎠

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• We can use the expression to plot graphs of

potential energy and force versus position for the
spring force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• For gravitational potential energy, we have

U (y )= mgy
• When substituting into Eq. (7.17), we get

dU d (mgy )
Fy = − =− = −mg
dy dy
• This is the correct expression for gravitational
force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

• We can use the expression to plot graphs of

potential energy and force versus position for the
gravitational force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.15 An electric force and its potential energy
An electrically charged particle is held at rest at the
point x = 0, while a second particle with equal charge is
free to move along the positive x-axis. The potential
energy of the system is
C
U ( x) =
x
Where C is a positive constant that depends on the
magnitude of the charges. Derive an expression for the
x-component of force acting on the movable charge, as
a function of its position.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.15 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up
We are given the potential-energy function U(x). Hence
we can use Eq.(7.17) to find our target, the function
Fx(x).

Execute
The derivative with respect to x of the function 1/x is
-1/x2. So the force on the movable charge for x > 0 is
dU ( x) ⎛ 1 ⎞ C
Fx ( x) = − = −C ⎜− 2 ⎟ = 2
dx ⎝ x ⎠ x

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.15 (SOLN)
Evaluate
The x-component of force is positive, corresponding to
a repulsive interaction between like electric charges.
The potential energy is very large for small x and
approaches zero as x becomes large; the force pushes
the movable charge towards large positive values of x,
for which the potential energy is less. The force varies
as 1/x2; it is small when the particles are far apart (large
x) but becomes large when the particles are close
together (small x). This is an example of Coulomb’s law
for electric interactions, which we will study in greater
detail in Chapter 21.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

Force and Potential Energy in Three Dimensions

• A force can have 3 components (
Fx , Fy and Fz )and
each components may be a function of x, y and z.
• Use Eq. (7.17) to find each component,
ΔU ΔU ΔU
Fx = − Fy = − Fz = −
Δx Δy Δz
• We compute the derivative of U with respect to x, y
and z,
∂U ∂U ∂U
Fx = − Fy = − Fz = − (7.18)
∂x ∂y ∂z
(force from potential energy)
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

Force and Potential Energy in Three Dimensions

• Writing in unit vectors, the expression is
ur ⎛ ∂U $ ∂U $ ∂U $ ⎞
F = −⎜ i + j+ k ⎟ (7.19)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
(force from potential energy)
• The expression can further reduced with a an
operation called the gradient of U, thus the force is
the negative of the gradient of the potential-energy
function: ur ur
F = −∇U (7.20)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.4 Force and Potential Energy

Force and Potential Energy in Three Dimensions

• As a check, substitute Eq. (7.20) into the function U =
mgy for gravitational potential energy:
ur ur ⎛ ∂ (mgy )$ ∂ (mgy )$ ∂ (mgy ) $ ⎞
F = −∇ (mgy )= − ⎜ i+ j+ k ⎟ = − (mg ) $j
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
• This is the same as the expression for gravitational
force.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.16 Force and potential energy in two dimensions

A puck slides on a level, frictionless air-hockey table.

The coordinates of the puck are x and y. It is acted on
by a conservative force described by the potential-
energy function
1
U ( x, y ) = k ( x 2 + y 2 )
2
Derive an expression for the force acting on the puck,
and find an expression for the magnitude of the force
as a function of position.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.16 (SOLN)
Identify and Set up
We’ll find the components of the force from the function
U(x,y) using Eq.(7.18), then determine the magnitude
of the force using the formula for the magnitude of a
vector:
F = Fx2 + Fy2

Execute
The components of the force are
∂U ∂U
Fx = − = −kx Fy = − = −ky
∂x ∂y
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.16 (SOLN)
Execute
From Eq.(7.19) this corresponds to the vector
expression r
F = −k ( xiˆ + yjˆ)
ˆ ˆ r
Now xi + yj is just the position vector rr of the particle,
r
so we can rewrite this expression as F = −kr. This
represents a force that at each point is opposite in
direction to the position vector of the point – that is, a
force that at each point is directed toward the origin.
The potential energy is minimum at the origin, so again
the force pushes in the direction of decreasing potential
energy.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.16 (SOLN)
Execute
The magnitude of the force at any point is
F = (−kx) 2 + (−ky ) 2 = k x 2 + y 2 = kr

Where r is the particle’s distance from the origin. This

is the force exerted by a spring that obeys Hooke’s law
and has a negligibly small length (compared to the
other distances in the problem) when it is not stretched.
So the motion of the puck is the same as if it were
attached to one end of an ideal spring of negligible
unstretched length; the other end is attached to the air-
hockey table at the origin.
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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Example 7.16 (SOLN)
Evaluate
We can check our result by noting that the potential-
energy function can also be expressed as U = ½ kr2.
Written this way. U is a function of a single coordinate
r, so we can find the force using Eq.(7.17) with x
replaced by r:
dU d ⎛1 2 ⎞
Fr = − = − ⎜ kr ⎟ = −kr
dr dr ⎝ 2 ⎠
Just as we calculated above, the force has magnitude
kr; the minus sign indicates that the force is radially
inward (toward the origin).

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams

• By looking at the graph of the potential-energy function U(x), we are

able to understand the motions when a particle moves along a straight
path.
• The figure shows a glider with mass m that moves along the x-direction.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams

• Below is the graph of the corresponding potential-energy

function . The limits
U (x ) = kx 2of the motion are the points
1
where the U curve intersects2 the horizontal line
representing the total mechanical energy E.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams
• K can never be negative and the potential energy U can never be greater than the total energy E.
• When x = 0, the slope and the force is zero.
• When x is positive, the slope is positive and the force is negative.
• When x is negative, the slope is negative and the force is positive.
• We say that x = 0 is a point of stable equilibrium, more generally, any minimum in a potential-energy
curve is a stable equilibrium position.

Fx

Fx

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams
• Previously graph (a) below shows a more general potential-energy function U(x) while graph
(b) shows the corresponding force .
• is zero at point and . They are the stable equilibrium points. The slope of U(x) is
zero at these points.
F = −dU / dx
• When the particle is displaced to the other sides, the force pushes
x back towards the
equilibrium point.
Fx x1 x3

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams
• The slope is zero at points and .
x x
• However when the particle is displaced a little to the right of2either sides, 4
slope pf U(x) is negative.
• Therefore these points are called unstable equilibrium points; any maximum in a potential-energy
curve is an unstable equilibrium position.
• Again, U cannot be greater than because K can’t be negative.
• and are the turning point of the particle’s motion as it stops and reverse its direction.

E1

xa xb

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
7.5 Energy Diagrams

• When increase potential energy to , particle can move from to .

E2
• When energy greater than , the particle moves to indefinitely large
values of x.
xc xd
• E3 the system can have.
represents the least possible total energy

E0

• Direction of the body is determined by the sign of potential energy U.

• is the physical significant quantity difference in the value
of U between 2 points.
Fx = −dU / dx

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Concept Summary
• The total potential energy is the sum of the gravitational and elastic energy. If no forces other than gravitational and elastic forces do work on a particle, the sum of kinetic and potential energy is conserved.
This sum E = K + U is called the total mechanical energy.
• When forces other than gravitational and elastic forces do work on a particle, the work done by these other forces equals the change in the total mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential energy).

Wother

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Concept Summary
• All forces are either conservative or nonconservative. A conservative force is one for which the work-kinetic energy relation is completely reversible. The work of a
conservative force can always be represented by a potential-energy function, but the work of a non-conservative force cannot.
• The work done by nonconservative forces manifests itself as change in the internal energy of bodies. The sun of kinetic, potential and internal energy is always conserved.

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Concept Summary
• For motion along a straight line, a conservative force is the negative derivative of its associated potential-energy
function U. In three dimensions, the components of a conservative force are negative partial derivative of U.

Fx (x )

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Key Equations

Wgrav = mgy1 −mgy2

= U1 −U 2 = −ΔU (7.1), (7.3)

1 2 1 2
Wel = kx1 − kx2
2 2
= U1 −U 2 = −ΔU (7.10)

K1 + U1 = K 2 + U 2 (7.11)

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7. Potential Energy and Energy Conversation
Key Equations

K1 + U1 + Wother = K 2 + U 2 (7.13)

ΔK + ΔU + ΔU int = 0 (7.16)

dU (x )
Fx (x )= − (7.17)
dx
∂U ∂U ∂U
Fx = − , Fy = − , Fz = − (7.18)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ur ⎛ ∂U $ ∂U $ ∂U $ ⎞
F = −⎜ i + j+ k⎟ (7.19)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
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