Hash-Based Indexes

Chapter 10

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 1

 Introduction

As for any index, 3 alternatives for data entries k*:

Data record with key value k
<k, rid of data record with search key value k>
<k, list of rids of data records with search key k>
Choice orthogonal to the indexing technique
Hash-based indexes are best for equality selections.
Cannot support range searches.
Static and dynamic hashing techniques exist;
trade-offs similar to ISAM vs. B+ trees.

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 2

 Static Hashing

# primary pages fixed, allocated sequentially,

never de-allocated; overflow pages if needed.
h(k) mod M = bucket to which data entry with
key k belongs. (M = # of buckets)

0
h(key) mod N
2
key
h

N-1
Primary bucket pages Overflow pages
Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 3
 Static Hashing (Contd.)

Buckets contain data entries.

Hash fn works on search key field of record r. Must
distribute values over range 0 ... M-1.
h(key) = (a * key + b) usually works well.
a and b are constants; lots known about how to tune h.
Long overflow chains can develop and degrade
performance.
Extendible and Linear Hashing: Dynamic techniques to fix
this problem.

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 4

 Extendible Hashing

Situation: Bucket (primary page) becomes full.

Why not re-organize file by doubling # of buckets?
Reading and writing all pages is expensive!
Idea: Use directory of pointers to buckets, double # of
buckets by doubling the directory, splitting just the
bucket that overflowed!
Directory much smaller than file, so doubling it is
much cheaper. Only one page of data entries is split.
No overflow page!
Trick lies in how hash function is adjusted!

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 Example LOCAL DEPTH 2
Bucket A
GLOBAL DEPTH 4* 12* 32* 16*

2 2
Bucket B
00 1* 5* 21* 13*
Directory is array of size 4.
01
To find bucket for r, take last
2
`global depth # bits of h(r); we 10
Bucket C
denote r by h(r). 11 10*

If h(r) = 5 = binary 101, it is in

bucket pointed to by 01. DIRECTORY 2
Bucket D
15* 7* 19*

DATA PAGES

Insert: If bucket is full, split it (allocate new page, re-distribute).

If necessary, double the directory. (As we will see, splitting a
bucket does not always require doubling; we can tell by
comparing global depth with local depth for the split bucket.)
Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 6
 Insert h(r)=20 (Causes Doubling)

LOCAL DEPTH 2 3
LOCAL DEPTH
Bucket A
GLOBAL DEPTH 32*16* 32* 16* Bucket A
GLOBAL DEPTH

2 2
3 2
00 1* 5* 21*13* Bucket B 000 1* 5* 21* 13* Bucket B
01 001
10 2 2
010
10* Bucket C
11 10*
011 Bucket C
100
2
DIRECTORY 101 2
Bucket D
15* 7* 19*
110 15* 7* 19* Bucket D
111
2
3
4* 12* 20* Bucket A2
DIRECTORY 4* 12* 20* Bucket A2
(`split image'
of Bucket A) (`split image'
of Bucket A)
Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 7
 Points to Note

20 = binary 10100. Last 2 bits (00) tell us r belongs in

A or A2. Last 3 bits needed to tell which.
Global depth of directory: Max # of bits needed to tell
which bucket an entry belongs to.
Local depth of a bucket: # of bits used to determine if an
entry belongs to this bucket.
When does bucket split cause directory doubling?
Before insert, local depth of bucket = global depth. Insert
causes local depth to become > global depth; directory is
doubled by copying it over and `fixing pointer to split
image page. (Use of least significant bits enables efficient
doubling via copying of directory!)

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 Directory Doubling

Why use least significant bits in directory?

Allows for doubling via copying!

6 = 110 3 6 = 110 3
000 000

001 100
2 2
010 010
1 00 1 00
011 110
0 6* 01 100 0 10 001
1 10 6* 1 6* 01
101 101
6*
11 110 6* 11
011 6*
111 111

Least Significant vs. Most Significant

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 9
 Comments on Extendible Hashing

If directory fits in memory, equality search

answered with one disk access; else two.
100MB file, 100 bytes/rec, 4K pages contains 1,000,000
records (as data entries) and 25,000 directory elements;
chances are high that directory will fit in memory.
Directory grows in spurts, and, if the distribution of hash
values is skewed, directory can grow large.
Multiple entries with same hash value cause problems!
Delete: If removal of data entry makes bucket
empty, can be merged with `split image. If each
directory element points to same bucket as its split
image, can halve directory.
Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 10
 Linear Hashing

This is another dynamic hashing scheme, an

alternative to Extendible Hashing.
LH handles the problem of long overflow chains
without using a directory, and handles duplicates.
Idea: Use a family of hash functions h0, h1, h2, ...
hi(key) = h(key) mod(2iN); N = initial # buckets
h is some hash function (range is not 0 to N-1)
If N = 2d0, for some d0, hi consists of applying h and looking
at the last di bits, where di = d0 + i.
hi+1 doubles the range of hi (similar to directory doubling)

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 11

 Linear Hashing (Contd.)

Directory avoided in LH by using overflow

pages, and choosing bucket to split round-robin.
Splitting proceeds in `rounds. Round ends when all
NR initial (for round R) buckets are split. Buckets 0 to
Next-1 have been split; Next to NR yet to be split.
Current round number is Level.
Search: To find bucket for data entry r, find hLevel(r):
If hLevel(r) in range `Next to NR , r belongs here.

Else, r could belong to bucket hLevel(r) or bucket

hLevel(r) + NR; must apply hLevel+1(r) to find out.

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 12

 Overview of LH File

In the middle of a round.

Buckets split in this round:
Bucket to be split If h Level ( search key value )
Next is in this range, must use
h Level+1 ( search key value )
Buckets that existed at the
to decide if entry is in
beginning of this round: `split image' bucket.
this is the range of
hLevel
`split image' buckets:
created (through splitting
of other buckets) in this round

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 13

 Linear Hashing (Contd.)

Insert: Find bucket by applying hLevel / hLevel+1:

If bucket to insert into is full:
Add overflow page and insert data entry.

(Maybe) Split Next bucket and increment Next.

Can choose any criterion to `trigger split.

Since buckets are split round-robin, long overflow
chains dont develop!
Doubling of directory in Extendible Hashing is
similar; switching of hash functions is implicit in
how the # of bits examined is increased.
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 Example of Linear Hashing

On split, hLevel+1 is used to

re-distribute entries.
Level=0, N=4 Level=0

h h PRIMARY h h PRIMARY OVERFLOW

1 0 Next= PAGES 1 0 PAGES PAGES
0
32*44* 36* 32*
000 00 000 00
Next=
Data entry r 1
001 01 9* 25* 5* with h(r)=5 001 01 9* 25* 5*

14* 18*10*30* Primary 14* 18*10*30*

010 10 010 10
bucket page
31*35* 7* 11* 31*35* 7* 11* 43*
011 11 011 11
(This info (The actual contents
is for illustration of the linear hashed 100 00 44* 36*
only!) file)
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 Example: End of a Round

Level=1
PRIMARY OVERFLOW
h1 h0 PAGES PAGES
Next=0
Level=0 000 00 32*
PRIMARY OVERFLOW
h1 h0 PAGES PAGES
001 01 9* 25*
000 00 32*
010 10 66* 18* 10* 34* 50*
001 01 9* 25*
011 11 43* 35* 11*
010 10 66*18* 10* 34*
Next=3 100 00 44* 36*
011 11 31*35* 7* 11* 43*

101 11 5* 37* 29*

100 00 44*36*

101 5* 37*29* 110 10 14* 30* 22*

01

110 10 14*30*22* 111 11 31*7*

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 16

 LH Described as a Variant of EH
The two schemes are actually quite similar:
Begin with an EH index where directory has N elements.
Use overflow pages, split buckets round-robin.
First split is at bucket 0. (Imagine directory being doubled
at this point.) But elements <1,N+1>, <2,N+2>, ... are the
same. So, need only create directory element N, which
differs from 0, now.
When bucket 1 splits, create directory element N+1, etc.
So, directory can double gradually. Also, primary
bucket pages are created in order. If they are allocated
in sequence too (so that finding ith is easy), we
actually dont need a directory! Voila, LH.

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 17

 Summary

Hash-based indexes: best for equality searches,

cannot support range searches.
Static Hashing can lead to long overflow chains.
Extendible Hashing avoids overflow pages by
splitting a full bucket when a new data entry is to be
added to it. (Duplicates may require overflow pages.)
Directory to keep track of buckets, doubles periodically.
Can get large with skewed data; additional I/O if this
does not fit in main memory.

Introduction to Database, Fall 2004/Melikyan 18

 Summary (Contd.)

Linear Hashing avoids directory by splitting buckets

round-robin, and using overflow pages.
Overflow pages not likely to be long.
Duplicates handled easily.
Space utilization could be lower than Extendible Hashing,
since splits not concentrated on `dense data areas.
Can tune criterion for triggering splits to trade-off
slightly longer chains for better space utilization.
For hash-based indexes, a skewed data distribution is
one in which the hash values of data entries are not
uniformly distributed!
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