The Study of Logic

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION

Derived from the Greek word logos which

means - study, reason or discourse

LOGIC is the science and art of correct thinking

- it is a SCIENCE because it is a
systematized body of logical truths and
principles governing correct thinking
 - as an ART, logic is a techne and it
teaches how to make a good argument
- often called the arts of arts because
it develops and perfects the intellect
which all artists need in their work
 LOGIC AND CORRECT THINKING
It is correct when it conforms to a pattern or
to rules
Example: A ruler is 12-inch long

Pres. GMA is a ruler

Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long
-THINKING is a mental process involves
analysis, definition, classification, comparison
and contrasts, etc.
- It guides or directs man to form correct ideas
BRANCHES OF LOGIC

FORMAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of form which has
something to do with the correctness or
sequence or the following of rules
Ex. All men are mortal
but Pedro is a man
therefore Pedro is mortal
BRANCHES OF LOGIC

MATERIAL LOGIC
-concerned with the aspect of subject matter or
content or truth of the argument
Example: A ruler is 12-inch long

Pres. GMA is a ruler

Therefore, Pres. GMA is 12-inch long
KINDS
- Deductive Logic: from more to less

- Inductive Logic: implies a sense of probability

 CONCEPTS AND TERMS
The three essential operations of the intellect
Mental Operations Products External Signs

1. SIMPLE CONCEPT ORAL AND WRITTEN

APPREHENSION TERMS

2. JUDGMENT MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

PROPOSITION PROPOSITIONS

3. REASONING MENTAL ORAL AND WRITTEN

AGREEMENT OR ARGUMENTS
DISAGREEMENT
CONCEPT

The representation of an object by the intellect

through which man understands or
comprehends a thing
It is an idea- starts with an outside reality and
apprehended by the senses
KINDS OF CONCEPT

1.First Intention: we understand what the thing

is according to what it is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
Second Intention: we understand not only what
the thing is according to what it is in reality but
also how it is in the mind
Ex. Monte Vista (Mountain View) is the
name of my subdivision
KINDS OF CONCEPT

2.Concrete Concepts: expresses a form and a

subject
Ex. The flower rose
Abstract Concepts: has a form only , has
intangible quality, that which cannot be
perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman
KINDS OF CONCEPT

3.Absolute Concepts: signifies the meaning of a

concept, all definitions are absolute concepts
Ex. A triangle is a three-sided figure.
Connotative Concepts: signifies a characteristic
existing in the concept, all modifiers are
connotative concepts
Ex. Drummer boy
KINDS OF CONCEPT

4.Positive Concepts: signifies the existence or

possession of something
Ex. happy
Negative Concepts: signifies the absence of
something
Ex. sad
SEATWORK #2

Underline the simple subject of each proposition

then classify according to the four kinds of
concepts in the column below:
1. Justice is a prerequisite of love.

2. Men are creatures of God.

3. Freedom is the name of our park.

4. Honesty is still the best policy.

5. Joy is Zenys friend.

 Concept I or II C or A A or C P or N
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
ASSIGNMENT #2
Underline the simple subject of each proposition
then classify according to the four kinds of
concepts in the column below:
1. Love is a many-splendored thing.
2. Love is the theme of the homily.
3. The loving couple is a model to their children.
4. Hope is the opposite of despair.
5. Hope is the street where I live.
6. The urban poor are people in need of hope.
THE TERM
The external representation of a concept and
the ultimate structural element of a
proposition.

- external representation means it is always a

sign of a concept or an idea
- ultimate structural element means it could
either be the subject or predicate of a
proposition
THE TERM

EXAMPLE:

Hilda is a (nun).

subject predicate
PROPERTIES OF A TERM

EXTENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of the particulars to which the
comprehension of a concept can be applied
- The denotation of a term

- The terms that are members of the domain of

the concept
PROPERTIES OF A TERM

COMPREHENSION OF A TERM
- the sum total of all notes which constitute the
meaning of a concept
- set of traits or characteristics that differentiates
the term in a group
- the connotation of a term
PROPERTIES OF A TERM
Example is the term BAT
-for its extension it will include all animals,
regardless of size, shape, colour, or breeding
-further analysis (comprehension), know the
nature of bats how?
- You must try to state the trait or set of traits and
characteristics that differentiates bats from the
rest of the animal kingdom
 PROPERTIES OF A TERM
Example is the term BAT
-the important common trait of bats is: they are
the only mammals capable of sustained flight
like a bird
Unlike birds, bats are able to fly at low speed
-

with extreme maneuverability.

RELATIONSHIP
Comprehension and Extension are related to
each other inversely
Meaning: the greater the comprehension of a
term, the lesser its extension and vice versa
- the arrangement of the characteristics from
general to specific
Ex. city, barangay, province, municipality,
region, country , sitio
SEATWORK#3

Arrange the ff. from greater comprehensiont o

lesser extension
1. Pedro, Filipino, Man, Asian, Brown Race

2. Square, Plane, Figure, Rectangle, Polygon,

Parallelogram, shape
ANSWER TO SW#3

1. Man 2. Plane
Asian Figure
Brown Race Shape
Filipino Polygon
Pedro Parallelogram
Rectangle
Square
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
1. SINGULAR it stands for a single definite
individual or group
- Proper nouns ex. Raul, La Union, DMMMSU
- Nouns modified by adjective to the
superlative degree ex. most charming
- Demonstratives ex. this book, that door
- Collective nouns ex. flock, class
- The article the ex. The man in blue shorts
- Personal pronouns I, you, he, she, we, they,
my, your, our
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
2. PARTICULAR - it stands for an indefinite
subject
- Indefinite pronouns and adjectives
ex. Some, several, many, few
- Use of numbers ex. Seven tickets
- Use of article a and an
- General propositions: which are true most of
the time but not all the time
ex. Filipinos are hospitable
QUANTITIES OF TERMS
3. UNIVERSAL it stands for every subject
signified
- Universal expressions ex. All, every, each,
whatever, whoever, whichever, without
exception, everything
- Universal ideas
Ex. Men are mortal
- The use of articles the, a, an if the idea
is universal
Ex. The snake is a dangerous creature.
SEATWORK #4
Underline each simple subject and classify its quantity:
S for singular, P for particular, and U for universal
1. I am a violinists daughter.
2. All the children are musicians.
3. Six of them are a string ensemble.
4. A brother is a trombone player.
5. Some bands are their competitors during the town
fiesta.
6. A square is a geometric figure with four equal sides.
7. Two parallel lines will not meet.
8. You should practice what you preach.
9. That girl beside me is wearing a red dress.
10. The weather is warm.
KINDS OF TERMS

1. UNIVOCAL if they mean exactly the same

thing in the last two occurrences
Ex. Man is rational.
Get that man!
2. EQUIVOCAL if they have different meanings
in at least two occurrences
Ex. Man the lifeboat!
The son of man
KINDS OF TERMS
3. ANALOGOUS if they have partly the same
and partly different meanings in at least two
occurrences
KINDS:
1. Intrinsic analogy: used in technical terms
and as definitions
2. Extrinsic analogy: used as a metaphor
Ex. The heart of the forest
KINDS OF TERMS
KINDS:
3. Analogy of Proportionality: when the terms
use are similar
Ex. The stepmother is cruel.
The sea is cruel.
4.Analogy of Attribution: attribute the term to
its denotation
Ex. I am drinking Coke.
SEATWORK #5
Classify the underlined terms- write U for Univocal, E
for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic Analogy, EA for
Extrinsic analogy, AP for for Analogy of
Proportionality, AA for Analogy of Attribution.
1. I am reading Rizal.
2. Gold is a precious metal. Lydia de Vega received
a gold for 100m. Dash.
3. Politicians speaks of leveling the Smokey
Mountain. Geneva Cruz is a member of the
Smokey Mountain.
4. Gonzaga is a tenor. Cabahug is a tenor.
5. I am using Colgate.
SEATWORK #5

Classify the underlined terms- write U for Univocal, E

for Equivocal, IA for Intrinsic Analogy, EA for
Extrinsic analogy, AP for Analogy of Proportionality,
AA for Analogy of Attribution.
6. Father Sales and my father are friends.
7. The smiling sun is so brilliant.
8. The mouth of the river is clean.
9. We pass by Bridals Veil along Kennon Road
10. Hitler is a man.
Marcos is a man.
SUPPOSITION OF TERMS

It is functional the way it is meant in the

proposition
Examples:

1. A square is a rectangle with four equal sides.

2. Square has six letters

3. Square is the subject the sentence

4. A black-rimmed square clock is classy in my

living room.
KINDS OF SUPPOSITION

1. MATERIAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a

word for itself alone, for its spoken or written
sign, not for its real meaning
Examples: #2 and 3
2. FORMAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a
word for its real meaning
Example: #1
OTHER KINDS

A] LOGICAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a

word for its second intention; that is the way
the mind thinks it to be
Example: #4
B] REAL SUPPOSITION: is that which uses a
word in its first intention
Example: #1
UNDER REAL SUPPOSITION:

1] Absolute Supposition: is that which uses a

word for essence, but without excluding existing
reality
Example: Proposition #1
Personal Supposition: is that which uses a
word for the subject containing the essence
signified by the word
Example: Proposition #4
2. Essential Supposition: is that which uses a
word for qualities necessary to the subject
Example: #1

Accidental Supposition: is that which uses a

word for qualities not actually necessary to
the subject
Example: #4
SEATWORK#6
Give the specific kind of supposition illustrated by
the words carabao and pag-asa in each
proposition below.
1. Tamarao belongs to the endangered species.
2. Tamarao is a word with three syllables.
3. Pag-asa is the name of the eaglet.
4. Pag-asa is the subject of the sentence.
5. Pag-asa means hope in English.
6. Pag-asa is now the adopted child of bird
lovers.
OTHER TYPES

- IMAGINARY SUPPOSITION: exists as a product

of imagination
Ex. Fictional character
- METAPHORICAL SUPPOSITION: term is used as
a figure of speech
Ex. The smiling sun
- SYMBOLIC SUPPOSITION: signifies a group of
men
Ex. L.A. Lakers
 THE PROPOSITION

- A special type of sentence

- An enunciation of truth or falsity
- Verbal expression of mental judgment
 STRUCTURAL ELEMENT
S C P

[subject]- [copula]- [predicate]

- Subject stands for the thing signified, the one
spoken of
- Predicate stands for what is affirmed or denied
of the subject
- copula- links the subject and the predicate
- * acceptable only is the present tense
is or is not
 EXAMPLE

All boys (are) future men.

Quantifier subject[S] copula[C] predicate[P]

 LOGICAL SYMBOL
[FOUR STANDARD PROPOSITIONS]
QUANTITY QUALITY
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE

UNIVERSAL, A E
SINGULAR Every S is P. No S is P.

PARTICULAR I O
Some S is P. Some S is not P.
 EXAMPLES

A - Every monkey is an animal.

E - No monkey is a human.

I - Some monkeys are brown.

O - Some monkeys are not brown.

 LOGICAL DIAGRAM

A PROPOSITION

PREDICATE

SUBJECT
E PROPOSITION

SUBJECT PREDICATE
I PROPOSITION

SUBJECT PREDICATE
O PROPOSITION

SUBJECT PREDICATE
 LOGICAL FORM
WAYS OF REWRITING PROPOSITION TO ITS
LOGICAL FORM
1. Change the verb to its present tense
progressive.
2. Change the verb to a noun.
3. Change verb to a relative clause.
4. Change verb to a noun clause.
 EXAMPLE
ALL CROCODILES CANNOT FLY.
1.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING.
2.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYERS.
3.NO CROCODILES ARE REPTILES THAT CAN
FLY.
4.NO CROCODILES ARE FLYING REPTILES.
 SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
A E
CONTRARY
S S
U U
B B
A A
L L
T T
E E
R R
N N
SUBCONTRARY
I O
CONTRADICTORIES

- 2 pairs:
1] A O: Every S is P, therefore, some S is not P.
O A: Some S is not P, therefore, every S is P.

2]E I: No S is P, therefore, some S is P.

I E: Some S is P, therefore, no S is P.
EXAMPLES:

A - All men are rational, therefore

O - some men are not rational.

I Some students are girls, therefore

E No students are girls.
RULES:

1. If one is true, the other is false.

2. If one is false, the other is true.

A - All men are rational is true [ T ],

therefore
O - some men are not rational. False or F
CONTRARY
- 1 pair:
A E: Every S is P, therefore, no S is P.
or
E A: No S is P, therefore, every S is P.

Example:
E- No students are girls, therefore,
A - every students are girls.
RULES:

1. If one is true, the other is false.

2. If one is false, the other is doubtful.

Example:
E- No students are girls is false [ F ],
therefore,
A - every students are girls is doubtful [ ? ]
 SUBCONTRARY
- 1 pair

I O: Some S is P, therefore some S is not P.

or
O I: Some S is not P, therefore some S is P.
EXAMPLE:
I - Some students are girls, therefore
O - some students are not girls.
RULES:

1. If one is true, the other is doubtful.

2. If one is false, the other is true.

EXAMPLE:
I - Some students are girls is true [ T ], therefore
O - some students are not girls is doubtful [ ? ].
 SUBALTERNS

- 2 pairs
1. A I: Every S is P, therefore some S is P.
I A: Some S is P, therefore every S is P.

2. E O: No S is P, therefore some S is not P.

O E: Some S is not P, therefore no S is P.
EXAMPLE

A- All triangles are planes with three sides,

therefore
I- Some triangles are planes with three sides.
RULES:

1. If the universal is true, the particular is true; if

the universal is false, the particular is doubtful

A- All triangles are planes with three sides is true

[ T ], therefore
I- Some triangles are planes with three sides true
[ T ].
2. If the particular is true, the universal is
doubtful; but if the particular is false, the
universal is false.
I- Some triangles are planes with three
sides is true [ T ]
therefore
A- All triangles are planes with three sides is
Doubtful [?]