Chapter 3

Arithmetic for
Computers
 3.1 Introduction
Arithmetic for Computers
Operations on integers
Addition and subtraction
Multiplication and division
Dealing with overflow
Floating-point real numbers
Representation and operations

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 2

 3.2 Addition and Subtraction
Integer Addition
Example: 7 + 6

Overflow if result out of range

Adding +ve and ve operands, no overflow
Adding two +ve operands
Overflow if result sign is 1
Adding two ve operands
Overflow if result sign is 0

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 3

Integer Subtraction
Add negation of second operand
Example: 7 6 = 7 + (6)
+7: 0000 0000 0000 0111
6: 1111 1111 1111 1010
+1: 0000 0000 0000 0001
Overflow if result out of range
Subtracting two +ve or two ve operands, no overflow
Subtracting +ve from ve operand
Overflow if result sign is 0
Subtracting ve from +ve operand
Overflow if result sign is 1

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 4

Dealing with Overflow
Some languages (e.g., C) ignore overflow
Use MIPS addu, addui, subu instructions
Other languages (e.g., Ada, Fortran)
require raising an exception
Use MIPS add, addi, sub instructions
On overflow, invoke exception handler
Save PC in exception program counter (EPC)
register
Jump to predefined handler address
mfc0 (move from coprocessor reg) instruction can
retrieve EPC value, to return after corrective action

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 5

Arithmetic for Multimedia
Graphics and media processing operates
on vectors of 8-bit and 16-bit data
Use 64-bit adder, with partitioned carry chain
Operate on 88-bit, 416-bit, or 232-bit vectors
SIMD (single-instruction, multiple-data)
Saturating operations
On overflow, result is largest representable
value
c.f. 2s-complement modulo arithmetic
E.g., clipping in audio, saturation in video
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 6
 3.3 Multiplication
Multiplication
Start with long-multiplication approach
multiplicand
1000
multiplier
1001
1000
0000
0000
1000
product 1001000

Length of product is
the sum of operand
lengths

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 7

Multiplication Hardware

Initially 0

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 8

Optimized Multiplier
Perform steps in parallel: add/shift

One cycle per partial-product addition

Thats ok, if frequency of multiplications is low
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 9
Faster Multiplier
Uses multiple adders
Cost/performance tradeoff

Can be pipelined
Several multiplication performed in parallel
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 10
MIPS Multiplication
Two 32-bit registers for product
HI: most-significant 32 bits
LO: least-significant 32-bits
Instructions
mult rs, rt / multu rs, rt
64-bit product in HI/LO
mfhi rd / mflo rd
Move from HI/LO to rd
Can test HI value to see if product overflows 32 bits
mul rd, rs, rt
Least-significant 32 bits of product > rd

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 11

 3.4 Division
Division
Check for 0 divisor
Long division approach
quotient If divisor dividend bits
dividend 1 bit in quotient, subtract
1001 Otherwise
1000 1001010 0 bit in quotient, bring down next
-1000 dividend bit
divisor
10 Restoring division
101 Do the subtract, and if remainder
1010 goes < 0, add divisor back
-1000
10
Signed division
remainder Divide using absolute values
n-bit operands yield n-bit
Adjust sign of quotient and remainder
quotient and remainder as required

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 12

Division Hardware
Initially divisor
in left half

Initially dividend

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 13

Optimized Divider

One cycle per partial-remainder subtraction

Looks a lot like a multiplier!
Same hardware can be used for both

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 14

Faster Division
Cant use parallel hardware as in multiplier
Subtraction is conditional on sign of remainder
Faster dividers (e.g. SRT devision)
generate multiple quotient bits per step
Still require multiple steps

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 15

MIPS Division
Use HI/LO registers for result
HI: 32-bit remainder
LO: 32-bit quotient
Instructions
div rs, rt / divu rs, rt
No overflow or divide-by-0 checking
Software must perform checks if required
Use mfhi, mflo to access result

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 16

 3.5 Floating Point
Floating Point
Representation for non-integral numbers
Including very small and very large numbers
Like scientific notation
2.34 1056 normalized
+0.002 104 not normalized
+987.02 109
In binary
1.xxxxxxx2 2yyyy
Types float and double in C
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 17
Floating Point Standard
Defined by IEEE Std 754-1985
Developed in response to divergence of
representations
Portability issues for scientific code
Now almost universally adopted
Two representations
Single precision (32-bit)
Double precision (64-bit)

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 18

IEEE Floating-Point Format
single: 8 bits single: 23 bits
double: 11 bits double: 52 bits
S Exponent Fraction

x ( 1)S (1 Fraction) 2(ExponentBias)

S: sign bit (0 non-negative, 1 negative)

Normalize significand: 1.0 |significand| < 2.0
Always has a leading pre-binary-point 1 bit, so no need to
represent it explicitly (hidden bit)
Significand is Fraction with the 1. restored
Exponent: excess representation: actual exponent + Bias
Ensures exponent is unsigned
Single: Bias = 127; Double: Bias = 1203

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 19

Single-Precision Range
Exponents 00000000 and 11111111 reserved
Smallest value
Exponent: 00000001
actual exponent = 1 127 = 126
Fraction: 00000 significand = 1.0
1.0 2126 1.2 1038
Largest value
exponent: 11111110
actual exponent = 254 127 = +127
Fraction: 11111 significand 2.0
2.0 2+127 3.4 10+38

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 20

Double-Precision Range
Exponents 000000 and 111111 reserved
Smallest value
Exponent: 00000000001
actual exponent = 1 1023 = 1022
Fraction: 00000 significand = 1.0
1.0 21022 2.2 10308
Largest value
Exponent: 11111111110
actual exponent = 2046 1023 = +1023
Fraction: 11111 significand 2.0
2.0 2+1023 1.8 10+308

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 21

Floating-Point Precision
Relative precision
all fraction bits are significant
Single: approx 223
Equivalent to 23 log102 23 0.3 6 decimal
digits of precision
Double: approx 252
Equivalent to 52 log102 52 0.3 16 decimal
digits of precision

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 22

Floating-Point Example
Represent 0.75
0.75 = (1)1 1.12 21
S=1
Fraction = 1000002
Exponent = 1 + Bias
Single: 1 + 127 = 126 = 011111102
Double: 1 + 1023 = 1022 = 011111111102
Single: 101111110100000
Double: 101111111110100000

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 23

Floating-Point Example
What number is represented by the single-
precision float
1100000010100000
S=1
Fraction = 01000002
Fxponent = 100000012 = 129
x = (1)1 (1 + 012) 2(129 127)
= (1) 1.25 22
= 5.0

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 24

Floating-Point Addition
Consider a 4-digit decimal example
9.999 101 + 1.610 101
1. Align decimal points
Shift number with smaller exponent
9.999 101 + 0.016 101
2. Add significands
9.999 101 + 0.016 101 = 10.015 101
3. Normalize result & check for over/underflow
1.0015 102
4. Round and renormalize if necessary
1.002 102

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 27

Floating-Point Addition
Now consider a 4-digit binary example
1.0002 21 + 1.1102 22 (0.5 + 0.4375)
1. Align binary points
Shift number with smaller exponent
1.0002 21 + 0.1112 21
2. Add significands
1.0002 21 + 0.1112 21 = 0.0012 21
3. Normalize result & check for over/underflow
1.0002 24, with no over/underflow
4. Round and renormalize if necessary
1.0002 24 (no change) = 0.0625

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 28

FP Adder Hardware
Much more complex than integer adder
Doing it in one clock cycle would take too
long
Much longer than integer operations
Slower clock would penalize all instructions
FP adder usually takes several cycles
Can be pipelined

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 29

FP Adder Hardware

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 30

FP Arithmetic Hardware
FP multiplier is of similar complexity to FP
adder
But uses a multiplier for significands instead of
an adder
FP arithmetic hardware usually does
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
reciprocal, square-root
FP integer conversion
Operations usually takes several cycles
Can be pipelined

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 33

FP Instructions in MIPS
FP hardware is coprocessor 1
Adjunct processor that extends the ISA
Separate FP registers
32 single-precision: $f0, $f1, $f31
Paired for double-precision: $f0/$f1, $f2/$f3,
Release 2 of MIPs ISA supports 32 64-bit FP regs
FP instructions operate only on FP registers
Programs generally dont do integer ops on FP data,
or vice versa
More registers with minimal code-size impact
FP load and store instructions
lwc1, ldc1, swc1, sdc1
e.g., ldc1 $f8, 32($sp)

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 34

FP Instructions in MIPS
Single-precision arithmetic
add.s, sub.s, mul.s, div.s
e.g., add.s $f0, $f1, $f6
Double-precision arithmetic
add.d, sub.d, mul.d, div.d
e.g., mul.d $f4, $f4, $f6
Single- and double-precision comparison
c.xx.s, c.xx.d (xx is eq, lt, le, )
Sets or clears FP condition-code bit
e.g. c.lt.s $f3, $f4
Branch on FP condition code true or false
bc1t, bc1f
e.g., bc1t TargetLabel

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 35

FP Example: F to C
C code:
float f2c (float fahr) {
return ((5.0/9.0)*(fahr - 32.0));
}
fahr in $f12, result in $f0, literals in global memory

space
Compiled MIPS code:
f2c: lwc1 $f16, const5($gp)
lwc2 $f18, const9($gp)
div.s $f16, $f16, $f18
lwc1 $f18, const32($gp)
sub.s $f18, $f12, $f18
mul.s $f0, $f16, $f18
jr $ra
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 36
FP Example: Array Multiplication
X=X+YZ
All 32 32 matrices, 64-bit double-precision elements
C code:
void mm (double x[][],
double y[][], double z[][]) {
int i, j, k;
for (i = 0; i! = 32; i = i + 1)
for (j = 0; j! = 32; j = j + 1)
for (k = 0; k! = 32; k = k + 1)
x[i][j] = x[i][j]
+ y[i][k] * z[k][j];
}
Addresses of x, y, z in $a0, $a1, $a2, and

i, j, k in $s0, $s1, $s2

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 37
FP Example: Array Multiplication
MIPS code:
li $t1, 32 # $t1 = 32 (row size/loop end)
li $s0, 0 # i = 0; initialize 1st for loop
L1: li $s1, 0 # j = 0; restart 2nd for loop
L2: li $s2, 0 # k = 0; restart 3rd for loop
sll $t2, $s0, 5 # $t2 = i * 32 (size of row of x)
addu $t2, $t2, $s1 # $t2 = i * size(row) + j
sll $t2, $t2, 3 # $t2 = byte offset of [i][j]
addu $t2, $a0, $t2 # $t2 = byte address of x[i][j]
l.d $f4, 0($t2) # $f4 = 8 bytes of x[i][j]
L3: sll $t0, $s2, 5 # $t0 = k * 32 (size of row of z)
addu $t0, $t0, $s1 # $t0 = k * size(row) + j
sll $t0, $t0, 3 # $t0 = byte offset of [k][j]
addu $t0, $a2, $t0 # $t0 = byte address of z[k][j]
l.d $f16, 0($t0) # $f16 = 8 bytes of z[k][j]

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 38

FP Example: Array Multiplication

sll $t0, $s0, 5 # $t0 = i*32 (size of row of y)
addu $t0, $t0, $s2 # $t0 = i*size(row) + k
sll $t0, $t0, 3 # $t0 = byte offset of [i][k]
addu $t0, $a1, $t0 # $t0 = byte address of y[i][k]
l.d $f18, 0($t0) # $f18 = 8 bytes of y[i][k]
mul.d $f16, $f18, $f16 # $f16 = y[i][k] * z[k][j]
add.d $f4, $f4, $f16 # f4=x[i][j] + y[i][k]*z[k][j]
addiu $s2, $s2, 1 # $k k + 1
bne $s2, $t1, L3 # if (k != 32) go to L3
s.d $f4, 0($t2) # x[i][j] = $f4
addiu $s1, $s1, 1 # $j = j + 1
bne $s1, $t1, L2 # if (j != 32) go to L2
addiu $s0, $s0, 1 # $i = i + 1
bne $s0, $t1, L1 # if (i != 32) go to L1

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 39

Interpretation of Data
The BIG Picture

Bits have no inherent meaning

Interpretation depends on the instructions
applied
Computer representations of numbers
Finite range and precision
Need to account for this in programs

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 41

 3.6 Parallelism and Computer Arithmetic: Associativity
Associativity
Parallel programs may interleave
operations in unexpected orders
Assumptions of associativity may fail

Need to validate parallel programs under

varying degrees of parallelism
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 42
 3.7 Real Stuff: Floating Point in the x86
x86 FP Architecture
Originally based on 8087 FP coprocessor
8 80-bit extended-precision registers
Used as a push-down stack
Registers indexed from TOS: ST(0), ST(1),
FP values are 32-bit or 64 in memory
Converted on load/store of memory operand
Integer operands can also be converted
on load/store
Very difficult to generate and optimize code
Result: poor FP performance

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 43

x86 FP Instructions
Data transfer Arithmetic Compare Transcendental
FILD mem/ST(i) FIADDP mem/ST(i) FICOMP FPATAN
FISTP mem/ST(i) FISUBRP mem/ST(i) FIUCOMP F2XMI
FLDPI FIMULP mem/ST(i) FSTSW AX/mem FCOS
FIDIVRP mem/ST(i)
FLD1 FPTAN
FSQRT
FLDZ FPREM
FABS FPSIN
FRNDINT FYL2X

Optional variations
I: integer operand
P: pop operand from stack
R: reverse operand order
But not all combinations allowed
Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 44
Streaming SIMD Extension 2 (SSE2)
Adds 4 128-bit registers
Extended to 8 registers in AMD64/EM64T
Can be used for multiple FP operands
2 64-bit double precision
4 32-bit double precision
Instructions operate on them simultaneously
Single-Instruction Multiple-Data

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 45

 3.8 Fallacies and Pitfalls
Right Shift and Division
Left shift by i places multiplies an integer
by 2i
Right shift divides by 2i?
Only for unsigned integers
For signed integers
Arithmetic right shift: replicate the sign bit
e.g., 5 / 4
111110112 >> 2 = 111111102 = 2
Rounds toward
c.f. 111110112 >>> 2 = 001111102 = +62

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 46

Who Cares About FP Accuracy?
Important for scientific code
But for everyday consumer use?
My bank balance is out by 0.0002!
The Intel Pentium FDIV bug
The market expects accuracy
See Colwell, The Pentium Chronicles

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 47

 3.9 Concluding Remarks
Concluding Remarks
ISAs support arithmetic
Signed and unsigned integers
Floating-point approximation to reals
Bounded range and precision
Operations can overflow and underflow
MIPS ISA
Core instructions: 54 most frequently used
100% of SPECINT, 97% of SPECFP
Other instructions: less frequent

Chapter 3 Arithmetic for Computers 48