Faculty of Chemical

Engineering
Universiti Teknologi
MARA

CHAPTER 5
MATERIALS OF

Mechanical Design of Process

CONSTRUCTION AND

Equipments CPE639
SELECTION
 CONTENTS
2.1 Fe-Fe3C system: Microstructure
development, Microconstituent of
phases.
2.2 Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Metals

2
2.3 Fe-Fe3C system
Microstructure
development,
Microconstituent of
phases.
3
2.3 Fe-Fe3C system: Microstructure
development,
Microconstituent of phases.
Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram
Solid Phases
Phase Transformation
Reactions
Allotropy Transformation

Microstructural Changes
Eutectoid
Hypoeutectoid Steel
Hypereutectoid Steel

4
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Students should be able to :

Sketch and label in the iron-iron carbide
phase diagram up to eutectic isotherm.
Specify whether the alloy is
hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid.
Identify the proeutectoid phase.
Explain the development of the
microstructure at a temperature just
below the eutectoid.
Compute the relative amount of pearlite
and proeutectoid phase.
5
 Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM
The effect of
adding C into Fe
will introduce
various types of
steel and cast
iron which are
represented by
the iron-iron
carbide phase
diagram.

6
Fe-Fe3C PHASE DIAGRAM

7
 SOLID PHASES
Phases present in Fe-Fe3C system :
1) Ferrite
2) (Austenite)
3) Ferrite
4) Fe3C (Cementite)
5) + Fe3C (Pearlite)

8
 SOLID PHASES
1) Ferrite

This is a solid solution of carbon in iron and has a

BCC crystal structure (same structure as -ferrite).
It is a phase which exists at extreme temperature
(>1400C) and stable only at high temperature,
above 1394 C.
It melts at 1538 C.
The maximum solubility of C in Fe is 0.09% at
1495C. This has no real practical significance in
engineering.

9
Figure : Ferrite crystal structure
 SOLID PHASES
2) Austenite ( Iron)
It is also known as () gamma-iron, which is an
interstitial solid solution of carbon dissolved in iron with
a face centered cubic crystal (FCC) structure.
Transforms to BCC -ferrite at 1394C.
The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite, 2.14%.
Austenite is normally unstable below eutectoid
temperature unless cooled rapidly.
It is a non magnetic material.

10
Figure : Austenite ( iron) crystal structur
 SOLID PHASES
3. Ferrite
It is also known as alpha() iron, which is an
interstitial solid solution of a small amount of
carbon dissolved in iron with a Body Centered Cubic
(BCC) crystal structure.
It is the softest structure on the iron-iron carbide
diagram.
Stable form of iron at room temperature.
The maximum solubility of C is 0.022 wt%.
Ferrite dissolves considerably less carbon than
austenite.
Transforms to FCC -austenite at 912C.
-ferrite is magnetic (below 768C).

Figure : Ferrite ( iron) crystal structure11

 SOLID PHASES
3) Cementite (Fe3C)

Cementite is also known as iron carbide which has a

chemical formula, Fe3C.
Crystal structure: orthorhombic
Fe3C is an intermetallic compound. It is because a fixed
amount of C and a fixed amount of Fe are needed to form
cementite (Fe3C).
It is a hard and brittle material, low tensile strength and
high compressive strength.
It contains 6.70 wt% C and 93.3 wt% Fe.
This intermetallic compound is metastable,
it remains as a compound indefinitely at room
temperature, but decomposes (very slowly,
within several years) into -Fe and C
(graphite) at 650 - 700C. 12
 SOLID PHASES
5) + Fe3C (Pearlite)
It is resulted from transformation of austenite of
eutectoid composition on very slow cooling.
Pearlite is a laminated structure (lamellar structure)
formed of alternate layers of ferrite (white matrix-
ferritic background) and cementite (thin plate).
In most steels, the microstructure consists of both
+Fe3C (pearlite) phases.
It has intermediate mechanical properties between
and Fe3C.
Cementi
te (hard)
Figure : Pearlite microstructure
(Light background is the ferrite
Ferrite
matrix,
(soft)
dark lines are the cementite
network) 13
 Phase Transformation
Reactions
3 Invariant points:

-Peritectic (C)
L

14
 Phase Transformation
Reactions
The iron-carbon diagram exhibits three phase
transformation reactions :
Eutectic Reaction :
1147 o C
L (4.3 wt % C ) (2.14 wt % C ) Fe3C (6.7 wt % C )

Eutectoid Reaction :
727 o C
(0.76 wt % C ) (0.022 wt % C ) Fe3C (6.7 wt % C )

Peritectic Reaction :
1493o C
(0.1 wt % C ) L (0.5 wt % C ) (0.18 wt % C )

Note :
= gamma (austenite);
= alpha (ferrite);
L = liquid;
Fe3C = cementite 15
 Phase Transformation
Reactions
Peritectic

HYPO HYPER HYPO HYPER

%
16
EUTECTOID EUTECTIC Carbon
 ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
A material that can exist in more than one lattice structure
(depending on temperature-heating@cooling)
allotropic.

An allotropic material is able to exist in two or more forms having

various properties without change in chemical composition.

E.g : Upon heating, pure iron experiences two changes in crystal

structure:
At room temperature, it exists as ferrite,or iron (BCC).
When we heat it to 912C, it experiences an allotropic
transformation to austenite,or iron (FCC).
At 1394C, austenite reverts back to a BCC phase called
ferrite.

17
 ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATION
Allotropy of iron(Fe)
Delta iron Austenite
Alfa iron
(BCC) (FCC)
1538C (BCC)
High
Temp

Moderat
e Temp

912C

768C Low
Temp

18
 MICROSTRUCTURAL

CHANGES
Microstructure that exists in those reactions depends on :
Composition(carbon content)
Heat treatment
Three significant regions can be made relative to the steel portion
of the diagram which known as:
1) Eutectoid
Carbon content 0.76% and temperature 727C.
It entirely consists of pearlite ( + Fe3C).
2) Hypoeutectoid
Carbon content from 0.022 to 0.76%.
It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid)
ferrite.
3) Hypereutectoid
Carbon content from 0.76 to 2.14%.
It consist of pearlite and primary (proeutectoid)
cementite.
19
 EUTECTOID STEEL
Pearlit
Fe3C e

+ Fe3C
austenite
pearlite
Note :
Many cementite layers are so
thin that adjacent phase
boundaries are Figure : Photomicrograph of a
indistinguishable (appear dark). eutectoid steel showing the
Alternating layers of and pearlite microstructure
Fe3C form pearlite. consisting of alternating
layers of ferrite (thick
layers, light phase) and
Fe3C (thin layers most of 20
EUTECTOID STEEL

The layers of alternating

phases in pearlite are formed
for the same reason as layered
structure of eutectic
structures:
Redistribution C
atoms between ferrite
(0.022 wt%) and cementite
(6.7wt%) by atomic
The pearlite diffusion.
exist as
grains, often termed
21
as colonies.
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL

(Austenite)

+

(proeutectoid ferrite) +
(Austenite)
+
+ Fe3C
(proeutectoid ferrite) +
Note :
(pearlite)
Eutectoid = Ferrite that is
present in the pearlite.
Proeutectoid (meaning pre- or
before eutectoid) = Formed above
eutectoid temperature.
Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C
system of hypoeutectoid composition
Co 22
HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL

23
 HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
EXERCISE
Consider an Fe C alloy containing 0.25 wt% C, Determine
the mass fractions of
a)proeutectoid ferrite and pearlite
b) total ferrite and cementite.
c) eutectoid ferrite
Co= 0.25wt%C hypoeutectoid
Co= 0.25wt%C Below eutectiod temperature
phase(s) present : + Fe3C @
hypoeutectoid
Above eutectoid + pearlite
temperature C= 0.022wt%C, CFe3C= 6.7wt%C
phase(s) present : +
C= 0.022wt%C, C = 0.76wt W = CFe3C Co = 0.97 @97%
%C CFe3C C

W = C Co = 0.69 @69% WFe3C = Co - C = 0.03 @ 3%

C C
CFe3C C
24
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL

(Austenite)

Fe3C +

(proeutectoid cementite) +
(Austenite) Fe C +
3
+ Fe3C
(proeutectoid cementite) +
Note :
(pearlite)
Eutectoid Fe3C= Cementite that is
present in the pearlite

Figure : Microstructures for Fe-Fe3C

system of hypereutectoid composition
25
HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL

26
 HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL
EXERCISE
Consider an Fe C alloy containing 1.25 wt% C, Determine the
mass fractions of
a) proeutectoid cementite and pearlite
b) total ferrite and cementite
c) eutectoid cemmentite. Co= 1.25wt%C
Co= 1.25wt%C hypereutectoid
Below eutectiod temperature
hypereutectoid
phase(s) present : + Fe3C @
Above eutectoid
Fe3C + pearlite
temperature
C= 0.022wt%C, CFe3C= 6.7wt
phase(s) present : Fe3C +
%C
CFe3C= 6.7wt%C, C =
W = CFe3C Co = 0.82 @82%
0.76wt%C
CFe3C C
WFe3C = Co C = 0.08
@8% WFe3C = Co - C = 0.18 @ 18%
27
 HYPO vs HYPER
EUTECTOID Hypereutectoid
Hypoutectoid steel
STEELsteel
+Fe3C (pearlite) +Fe3C (pearlite)
+ +
proeutectoid ferrite() proeutectoid cementite(Fe3C)

Figure : Photomicrograph of a 1.4wt%

Figure : Photomicrograph of a C steel having a microstructure
0.38wt% C steel having a consisting of a white proeutectoid
microstructure consisting of cementite network surrounding the 28
 2.4 Ferrous and
Non-Ferrous Metals

29
2.4Ferrous and Non-Ferrous
Introduction
Metals
Non-Ferrous Alloys
Classification of Metal Alloys Aluminium and its
Classification of Ferrous Alloys alloys
Steel
Plain Carbon Steel Copper and its alloys
Low Carbon Steel Magnesium and its
Medium Carbon Steel alloys
High Carbon Steel Titanium and its
Stainless Steel
alloys
Tool Steel
Cast Iron The Noble Metal
Gray Cast Irons The Refractory
Nodular (Ductile) Cast Metals
Irons
White Cast Irons
Malleable Cast Irons

30
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Students should be able to :

Differentiate the differences between
ferrous and nonferrous metals.
Describe the characteristics of white,
gray, ductile and malleable cast
irons.
Understand the properties and
applications of metals and its alloys.

31
 INTRODUCTION
Metal alloys can be divided into two
categories :
1. Ferrous 2) Nonferrous

Metal alloys that Metal alloy

contain iron as a contain less @ no
prime constituent. iron.
E.g : steels, cast E.g : Cu, Al, Mg, Ti
iron. and its alloys
Tend to have a Have a much
higher chance of higher resistance
corrosion.
Note :
to corrosion.
The word ferrous is derived from the Latin term "Ferrum" which means
"containing iron".
32
 INTRODUCTION

Advantages of Non-
Advantages of Ferrous alloys over
Ferrous alloys over ferrous alloys:
Non-Ferrous alloys:
Generally greater Good resistance to
strength. corrosion.
Generally greater Casting and cold
stiffness. working processes and
Better for welding are often easier.
High ductility.
Higher thermal and
electrical
conductivities.
Colors.

33
CLASSIFICATION OF
METAL ALLOYS

C
Al Mg Ti Nobl
u
e
Meta
lRefractor
y metal

34
 CLASSIFICATION OF
FERROUS ALLOY
Definition : Those of which iron is the prime
constituent.

Advantages :
1. Iron ores exist in abundant quantities within the
earths crust.
2. Produced from economical process : Extraction,
refining, alloying and fabrication techniques are
available.
3. Versatile material : Wide range of mechanical
and physical properties.

Disadvantages :
1. Tends to corrode.
2. High density.
35
3. Low electrical conductivity.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
FERROUS ALLOY
The ferrous alloys are classified based
on the percentage of carbon present in
the ferrous. (steel <2.14 %C, cast iron
2.14 - 4.3%C)

Carbon is the most important

commercial steel alloy (C,
hardness, strength, brittleness,
weldability)
36
CLASSIFICATION OF
FERROUS ALLOY

37
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon med carbon high carbon
<0.25wt%C 0.25-0.6wt%C 0.6-1.4wt%C

heat austentitic
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool
treatable stainless
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 4340 1095 4190 304
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ 0
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ 0
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades V. corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
38
 Steels
Are iron carbon alloys that may contain
carbon less than 2.14%.
Classification by carbon content
Low, medium and high carbon type
Subclasses by concentration of other
alloying elements :
Plain carbon steel
Alloy steel
The microstructures of steel are
normally ferrite and relatively soft and
weak but good ductility and toughness.

39
 Steels

First digit indicates the family to which the steel belongs (a.k.a. the major
alloying elements) :
Second digit indicate % of major alloying elements (1 means 1%).
Last two digits(3rd and 4th number) indicate amount of carbon in steel
Example
(10 means 0.10% C).
SAE 5130 means alloy chromium steel, containing 1% of chromium and
0.30% of Carbon.
AISI 1020 which means 10 indicates plain carbon steel with 0.2% 40
*SAE : Society of Automotive Engineers *AISI : American Iron and
amount of Carbon.
 Plain Carbon Steels
Iron with less than 1% carbon alloy
contains a small amount of manganese,
phosphorous, sulfur and silicon.
Disadvantages of plain carbon steel:
Hardenability is low
Loss of strength and embrittleness
Subjected to corrosion in most environments
3 groups:
Low carbon steels
Medium carbon steels
High carbon steels

41
 Low Carbon Steels (<
0.25%C )
High-strength low alloy
Plain carbon steels (HSLA) steels
unresponsive to heat treatments Low Carbon Steel combine
intended to form martensite. with 10 wt% of alloying
Microstructures consist of ferrite elements, such as Mn, Cr, Cu,
and pearlite V, Ni, Mo
Properties: Properties:
Relatively soft and weak, but higher strength than plain low
possess high ductility and carbon steels.
toughness ductile, formable and
Good formability, Good weldability machinable
Low cost
More resistance to corrosion
Rated at 55-60% machinability
Strengthening by heat
Application: Auto-body
treatment.
components, structural shapes,
sheets for pipelines, building, Application : bridges, towers,
bridges, tin cans, nail, low support columns in high rise
temperature pressure vessel. building, pressure vessels.

42
 Medium Carbon Steel
Composition: 0.25 - 0.6% Plain medium
C carbon steel
Advantages: Low hardenability
Machinability is 60-70%. Heat treatment:
Both hot and cold rolled
quenching and tempering
steels machine better
when annealed.
Good toughness and Heat treatable steel
ductility Containing Cr, Ni and Mo
Fair formability Heat treated alloy stronger
Responds to heat than Low Carbon Steel, lower
treatment but often used ductility and toughness than
in natural condition. Low Carbon Steel

Applications : Couplings, forgings, gears, crankshafts other

high-strength structural components.
: Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also
used for rails, railway wheels and rail axles. 43
 High Carbon Steels
Composition: 0.6% - 1.4% Advantages:
C Hardness is high
Properties:
Wear resistance is
hardest
strongest
high
least ductile of the carbon Fair formability
steels Disadvantages:
Application:
Used for withstanding Low toughness,
wear. formability
A holder for a sharp Not recommended for
cutting edge. welding
E.g : drills, woodworking tools,
axes, turning and planning tools, Usually joined by brazing
milling cutters, knives. with low temperature
Used for spring materials, silver alloy making it
high-strength wires, cutting possible to repair or
tools, and etc. fabricate tool steel parts
without affecting their 44
 Stainless Steels
Primary alloying element is chromium (>11%)
Others element : Nickel, Manganese, Molybdenum.
Called stainless because in the presence of oxygen, they
develop a thin, hard, adherent film of chromium oxide
(Cr2O3) that protect the metal from corrosion.
Highly resistance to corrosion.
3 basic types of stainless are
Martensite
Ferritic
Austenitic
Applications
Decorative trim, nozzles.
Springs, pump rings, aircraft fittings.
Cookware, chemical and food processing equipment.
Turbine blades, steam boilers, parts in heating furnaces.
Temporary implant devices such as fractures plates, screw and hip
nails.
The best choice for the walls of a steam boiler because it is corrosion
resistant to the steam and condensate.
45
 Tool Steels
High carbon steel alloys (containing Cr, V, W
and Mo) that have been designed to prevent
wear resistance and toughness combined
with high strength.
Have excess carbides (carbon alloys) which
make them hard and wear resistant.
Most tool steels are used in a heat treated
state generally hardened and tempered.
Applications:
gauges, shear knives, punches, chisels, cams,
mould for die casting.
Best choice for a drill bit because it is very hard
and wear resistant and thus will retain a sharp
cutting edge.
46
Type of steel

47
 Cast Irons
Carbon contents : Greater than 2.14wt% C.
Si content : 0.5-3wt%Si
(used to control kinetics of carbide formation)
Commercial range : 3.0-4.5 wt% C + other
alloying elements.
The differences between cast irons and steels :
Carbon content.
Silicon content.
Carbon microstructure (stable form and unstable form).
Properties :
Low melting points (1150-1300C).
Some cast iron are brittle.
Microstructure:
Most commonly graphite (C) & ferrite.
48
 Cast Irons
Properties of cast iron is controlled by three main
factors:
The chemical composition of the iron
The rate of cooling of the casting in the mould
The type of graphite formed
Advantages:
Low tooling and production cost
Ready availability
Good machinability without burring
Readily cast into complex shapes
High inherent damping
Excellent wear resistance and high hardness
Types of cast irons :
Gray Cast Irons
Nodular (Ductile) Cast Irons
White Cast Irons
Malleable Cast Irons 49
 Gray Cast Irons
Composition : Carbon content : 2.5 - 4.0 wt% C and
Silicon content : 1.0 - 3.0wt% Si.
Microstructure : Graphite flakes surrounded by -
ferrite or pearlite matrix.
The formation of graphite occurs because of the cooling
rate is too slow where austenite in unstable position
and brake down to give graphite microstructure.
Properties:
Less hard and brittle (easy to machine)
Very weak in tension due to the pointed and sharp end of graphite
flake
Good during compression (high compressive strength)
Low shrinkage in mould due to formation of graphite flakes
High damping capacity
Low melting temperature (1140-1200 oC).
Applications: Base choice for milling machine base
because it effectively absorbs vibration (good vibration
damping). 50
 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
GRAY CAST IRONS
Graphite flakes

Figure : Dark graphite flakes in a-Fe

matrix.
* Graphite flakes shows fracture surface (gray appearance).
51
 Ductile (Nodular) Cast

Irons
Composition: Mg or Ce is added to the gray iron
composition before casting occurs (to prevent the
formation of graphite flakes during the slow cooling
of the iron)
Microstructure : Nodular or spherical-like graphite
structure in pearlite or ferritic matrix.
Properties :
Significant increase in material ductility.
Tensile strength > gray cast iron.
Others mechanical properties steel.
Applications : Valves, pump bodies, gear and other
automotive and machine components.
A HT can be applied to pearlite nodular iron to give
microstructure of graphite nodules in ferrite (ferrite
structure is more ductile and weldable but less tensile
strength)
52
 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
DUCTILE (or NODULAR) CAST IRONS

Graphite nodules (a.k.a. spherical-

like)

Figure : Dark graphite nodules in -Fe

matrix.
* Note that the carbon is in the shape of small sphere, not flakes.
53
 White Cast Iron
Composition: 2.5 < C < 4.0%C and Si<1%
Microstructure : Pearlite and cementite
(due to rapid cooling).
An intermediate metal for the production of
malleable cast iron.
Properties:
Relatively very hard, brittle and not weldable
compare to gray cast iron
When it is annealed, it become malleable
cast iron
Not easily to machine
Fracture surface: white appearance
54
 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
WHITE CAST IRONS

Pearlite

Fe3C
(Light
regions)

Figure : Light Fe3C regions surrounded by

pearlite. 55
 Malleable Cast Irons
Is produced by the HT of white cast irons
Heating temperature: 800oC 900oC
Duration : 2 or 3 days (50 hours)
Heating environment: Neutral atmosphere
Microstructure : A clumps (rossette) of
graphite
(due to decomposition of cementite)
surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix
Properties:
Similar to nodular cast iron and give higher
strength
More ductile and malleability
Applications : Pipe fittings, valve parts for
railroad, marine and other heavy duty. 56
 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF
MALLEABLE CAST IRONS
Graphite rosettes

Figure : Dark graphite rosettes in -

Fe matrix.
57
Summary:
Cast Iron
From
the ironcarbon
phase diagram,
composition ranges
for commercial cast
irons. Also shown
are schematic
microstructures that
result from a variety
of heat treatments.
Gf, flake graphite;
Gr, graphite rosettes;
Gn, graphite nodules;

58
 Non-Ferrous Alloys
Definition: Used for alloys which do not have
iron as the base element.
Examples: Al alloys, Cu alloys, Mg alloys, Ti
alloys, Noble metals, Refractory metals, etc.

Advantages of Ferrous alloys over Non-Ferrous

alloys:
Generally greater strength
Generally greater stiffness ( E)
Better for welding
The advantages of Non-Ferrous alloys over
ferrous alloys:
Good resistance to corrosion
Much lower density
Casting is often easies ( melting points)
Cold working processes are often easier (ductility)
Higher thermal and electrical conductivities
colors 59
 Copper and its alloys
Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical
properties, have been utilized in quite a variety of applications since antiquity.
Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine; also, it has an
almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked. Furthermore, it is highly resistant to
corrosion in diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and
some industrial chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of
copper may be improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or
strengthened by heat-treating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid
solution alloying must be utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
The most common copper alloys are the brasses, for which zinc, as a
substitutional impurity, is the predominant alloying element. As may be observed for
the copperzinc phase diagram, the phase is stable for concentrations up to
approximately 35 wt% Zn. This phase has an FCC crystal structure, and
-brasses are relatively soft, ductile, and easily cold worked. Brass alloys having a
higher zinc content contain both and phases at room temperature. The
phase has an ordered BCC crystal structure and is harder and stronger than the
phase; consequently, + alloys are generally hot worked.
Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge brass; muntz
metal; and gilding metal. Some of the common uses for brass alloys include costume
jewelry, cartridge casings, automotive radiators, musical instruments, electronic
packaging, and coins.
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin,
aluminum, silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the brasses,
yet they still have a high degree of corrosion resistance. Generally they are utilized
when, in addition to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required.
60
 Copper and its alloys
Characteris
Atomic weight 63.57 tics
Appearance: Reddish metal of bright luster
Highly malleable and ductile
High electrical and heat conductivitiy
Excellent corrosion resistance.
Relatively high strength.
Tm=1083oC, boiling point 2336oC
Sg = 8.94
Used in pure state as sheet, tube, rod and wire
Disadvantages :
1) Difficult to machine.
2) Expensive.
Applications : Jet aircraft landing gear bearing, radiator parts
for cars and trucks, surgical and dental instruments. 61
 Copper and its alloys
Alloyed by other elements: Zn, Al, Sn and Ni
Examples: Brass, Bronze, Copper-Nickel, Copper-Zinc-Nickel,
Aluminium Bronze
i. Brasses ii.Bronze
Cu based alloys in which Zn is Contain up to 8% Sn and
the principal added element.
can be cold work
Harder and stronger that Cu
or Zn Softer and weaker than
Malleable and ductile
steels
Develops high tensile with It resists corrosion
cold working (especially in seawater)
Ease of working Wrought bronzes are
stronger, better corrosion
Colour
resistance but high cost
Resistance to atmospheric and compare brass
marine corrosion Widely used for spring,
Used for electrical fittings, bearing, bushing and
ammunition cases, screws, similar fittings
household fittings, and
ornaments. 62
 Copper and its alloys
iii.Copper Nickel alloys iv.Aluminium Bronze
a.k.a cupronickels Cu rich Al alloys
It is an alloy of Cu that Properties
contains Niand High strength
strengthening elements, Resistance to
such as Fe and Mn corrosion and wear
Good resistance to High resistance to
seawater, alkalies, fatigue
sulphric acids and Fine golden colour
alkaline solution. Possibility of heat
treatment in manner
Poor resistance to nitric similar to steel
acids, cyanide solution Application: heat
Application: turbine exchanger tubes
blade, valve parts, pump
rod liners and impellers

63
Wrought Copper and Brasses:
Properties and Applications
Wrought Bronzes: Properties
and Applications
Aluminium and its alloys
Aluminum and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density
(2.7 g/cm3 as compared to 7.9 g/cm 3 for steel), high electrical and
thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion in some
common environments, including the ambient atmosphere. Many of
these alloys are easily formed by virtue of high ductility; this is
evidenced by the thin aluminum foil sheet into which the relatively
pure material may be rolled. Because aluminum has an FCC crystal
structure, its ductility is retained even at very low temperatures. The
chief limitation of aluminum is its low melting temperature [660 oC ],
which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
The mechanical strength of aluminum may be enhanced by
cold work and by alloying; however, both processes tend to diminish
resistance to corrosion. Principal alloying elements include copper,
magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc. Non heat- treatable alloys
consist of a single phase, for which an increase in strength is
achieved by solid-solution strengthening. Others are rendered heat
treatable (capable of being precipitation hardened) as a result of
alloying. In several of these alloys, precipitation hardening is due to
the precipitation of two elements other than aluminum, to form an
intermetallic compound such as MgZn 2.
66
 Aluminium and its alloys
Atomic weight 26.97; Crystal structure: FCC
Characteris
Appearance: silvery white metal tics
Tm=660oC, boiling point 2270oC
Relatively low density 2.7 g/cm3
(very light i.e. light weight vehicle, vessels, etc.)
Tensile strength= 45 MPa, E : 7.5 GPa
Ductile and malleable
High resistant to corrosion
(Al naturally produces a fine oxidized surface film which protect it from
corrode)
Stable against normal condition but attacked by both acids
& alkalis.
Nonmagnetic
High electrical and thermal conductivities (second to
copper)
Non toxic (widely used as packing materials (food))
67
 The All
Aluminum Audi A8
(a) The Audi A8
automobile which has
an all-aluminum body
structure.
(b) The aluminum body
structure, showing
various components
made by extrusion,
sheet forming, and
casting processes.
Aluminium and its alloys
Disadvantages :
Difficult to weld.
Prone to severe spring back.
Abrasive to tooling.
Expensive than steel.
Low melting point 660 oC.

Applications :
Used in applications that required lightness, high
corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal
conductivities.
E.g : cooking utensil, container, appliances,
building materials and etc.

69
Aluminum Alloy Properties and
Applications
 Magnesium and its alloys
Atomic weight 24.302, Appearance: Silver-white
Density 1.7 g/cm3, Tm = 627oC
Light, malleable, ductile metallic element
Low TS, relatively soft, low E.
At Troom difficult to deform. Most fabrication is by casting or hot
working.
Corrosion resistance in natural atmosphere. On the other hand
relatively unstable especially susceptible to corrosion in marine
environments.
E.g. Mg anode provide effective corrosion protection for water heaters,
underground pipelines, ship hulls and ballast tanks.
Mg alloys are used in applications where lightness is primary
consideration, e.g. aircraft components, missile application.
Replaced engineering plastics that have comparable densities since
Mg are stiffer, more recyclable and less costly to produce. Example
in a variety of handheld devices (chain saws, power tools, hedge clippers),
in automobiles (steering wheel and column, seat frames, transmission cases)
and
in audio-video-computer-communications equipment (laptop computers, cam
recorders, TV sets, cellular telephones)
71
Wrought Magnesium Alloys:
Properties and Forms
 Titanium and its alloys
Relatively low density (4.5 g/cm3)
High Tm = 1668oC, E= 107 GPa
Low strength when pure but alloying gives a
considerable increase in strength, highly
ductile and easily forged and machined
Expensive metal: excellent corrosion
resistance (immune to air, marine and a
variety of industrial environment); high cost
reflecting the difficulties in extraction and
formation of material.
Limitation: chemical reactivity with other
materials at elevated temperature
Applications:
pure Ti chemical plant components, surgical
implants, marine and aircraft engine parts.
Ti alloys steam turbine blades, rocket motor cases
73
Wrought Titanium Alloy Properties
and Applications
 The Noble Metals
Characteristics/Properties:
Expensive (precious)
Soft, ductile
Resistant to corrosion and oxidation
Good electrical conductivity
A group of 8 elements:
The precious metal group: silver (Ag) and gold
(Au).
The six platinum metals: platinum (Pt),
palladium (Pd), iridium (Ir), rhodium (Rh),
ruthenium (Ru), and osmium (Os).
75
 The Noble Metals
Eleme Properties Application
nt

Ag electrical & themal jewelry, dental restoration materials,

conductivity brazing solder, coins, silver coatings
(reflectors), electrical contact
Au corrosion resistance, jewelry, electric wiring, colored-glass
nontarnishing production, dentistry, electronics, brazing
characteristics, good solder, heat shielding foil in the engine
electrical conductivity compartment
Pt corrosion resistance, thermocouple, thermometer elements,
Tm , electrical contact, electrodes, jewelry,
ductility catalyst in the production of sulfuric acid

Pd properties Pt telephone relay contacts, catalyst to

however lower cost remove oxygen from heat treating
atmosphere
Ir most corrosion resistant, crucibles, extrusion dies
temperature
Rh reflectivity, reflector for motion picture projectors and
corrosion resistance aircraft searchlight, alloying addition to Pt
and Pd
76
corrosion resistant catalyst for synthesis of hydrocarbon, a
 The Refractory Metals
Five elements widely used: niobium (Nb), molybdenum
(Mo), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W), and rhenium (Re).
Properties:
Tm above 2000 C
High hardness at room temperature.
Chemically inert
Relatively high density
Resistance to heat and wear
Resistant to corrosion (ability to form a protective layer),
although they do readily oxidize at high temperatures.
Resistance to creep (the tendency of metals to slowly
deform under the influence of stress)
Resistant to thermal shock (repeated heating and cooling
will not easily cause expansion, stress and cracking).
Good electrical and heat conducting properties
Applications include tools to work metals at high
temperatures, wire filaments, casting molds, and chemical
reaction vessels in corrosive environments.
77
 The Refractory Metals
Eleme Properties Application
nt

Tm, immune to Superconducting alloys for electronic

attack by most acids, applications;
Nb a wide variety of High strength alloys for aerospace
strengths and applications; Moderately strengthened alloys
elasticity for nuclear applications; aircraft gas turbines,
aerospace rocket engines, insulators
Tm , Missile and rocket engine components, Die-
resistance to arc casting dies, Alloying additions; Electric
Mo erosion furnace heating elements, boats, heat shields
corrosion resistant, Crucibles for handling molten metal and
high temperature alloys, Electrolytic capacitors, Heat
Ta strength, low vapor exchangers, Cutting tools, Surgical implants,
pressure Aerospace engine components, Vacuum tube
filaments,
Tm (3410oC), Lamp filaments, Anodes and targets for x-ray
density tubes, Electrodes for inert gas arc welding,
W Forming dies, Catalysts in chemical and
petrochemical processes, Lubricants, Cutting
tools for metal machining
78
 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Cu Alloys Al Alloys
Brass : Zn is subst. impurity -lower : 2.7g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze: Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear)
Cu-Be:
NonFerrous Mg Alloys
-very low : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missles
Ti Alloys
-lower : 4.5g/cm3 Refractory metals
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
79
Nonferrous Metals and
Alloys