INTRODUCTION TO

PRINCIPLES OF ECOLOGY
 Learning Objectives
1. To understand the principles of ecology
(definition and ecological perspectives)
2. To list the hierarchy in ecology
3. To describe the factors determining the
distribution of organisms
4. To explain the contribution factors leading to
homeostasis
5. To describe Ecosystem Management
What is ECOLOGY?
- Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)
- Interested in evolution and life
development
- Coined words e.g. phylum, phylogeny and
etc.
What is ECOLOGY?
- Originated from Greek words
- Oikos: household, home or place to live
logos : the study of
Definition of ECOLOGY?
The study of the relationships among
organisms and between the environment, the
physical and biological factors affecting them
or influenced their distribution and abundance,
and understanding the mechanisms involved

in biological diversity.
ECOLOGY
- Multi-disciplinary science
- Can be applied to birds, plants, bacteria, soil,
water.
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
1. Applied ecology:
Practice of employing ecological principles
and analysis to solve real world problems
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
2. Human/Plant/Animal ecology:
Looks at human/plants/animals and their
interactions with the natural environments
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
3. Physiological ecology or Ecophysiology:
Looks at responses of individual organisms
to factors of environment
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
4. Population ecology
Concerned with population growth, regulation,
and intraspecific and interspecific competition.
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
5. Ecotoxicology
Looks at the ecological role of toxic chemicals
(pollutants).
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
6. Political Ecology
Looking at interactions of societies and states
and politics related to environmental issues.
Disciplines of ECOLOGY
and others

Soil ecology
Microbial ecology
Evolutionary ecology
Molecular ecology.
 Fundamental in
Principles of Ecology
 Hierarchy
BIOLOGY ECOLOGY
Cells Species (Organism)

Tissues
Population
Organs Community
Organism
Ecosystem
Hierarchy in Ecology:
1. Species/Organism
Organisms with common genetic
makeup, behavior, physical
characteristics
Intrabreeding organisms
Hierarchy in Ecology:
2. Population
A group of individuals belonging
to the same species inhabiting a
particular geographical area
Hierarchy in Ecology:
3. Community
All populations of different
species inhabiting a particular area

Higher diversity is more complex

and stable than those with low
diversity
Hierarchy in Ecology:
4. Ecosystems

Entire natural systems composed of

communities (biotic composition) and
their physical environment (abiotic
composition)
All ecosystems Biosphere
on earth
Biosphere:
Always referred as the Earth
Ecological point of view:
integrate all living things and their
relationships, their interaction with the
elements of lithosphere (rocks), the
hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere
(air)
Development of microbial communities

Made up of individuals/species and

populations
Highest biological unit in ecological
hierarchy
Population selection within communities
Microorganisms evolved strategies to
survive and maintain themselves within
communities.
r strategist
K strategist
 r strategist

- Strategy: High reproductive rates or rapid growth

rates
- Characteristics:
a) Dominates environment rich/temporary rich in
resources
b) Extreme fluctuations in population
c) Transient members e.g. cyanobacteria in
eutrophic pond
- Advantage if: could produce resistant spores or
endospores
 K strategist

- Strategy: Adaptation
- Characteristics:
a) Reproduce slower than r strategist
b) Tend to be successful in resource-limited
situations
c) Population more stable and are permanent
members
Succession within microbial communities
Development of community in ecosystem
succession process
Structure of community evolves with time
Stability of community is contributed by
a. Types of interrelationships among populations
b. Adaptations within populations
Structure of microbial communities
Few species with many individuals OR many
species with few individuals
High number of species high diversity
Low number of species low diversity
Diversity increases with succession
Diversity is lower in communities under stress
Community succession

Begins with colonization or invasion of habitat by

microbial populations
- Primary succession: habitat has not been
previously colonized
- Secondary succession: habitat has been
previously colonized and succession
henceforth
 Events in Community Succession
Virgin
1o SUCCESSION environment

Pioneer organisms
alter the virgin
environment

First colonizer =
pioneer organism*
Occurrence of
PREEMPTIVE
* varies with COLONIZATION
environment to be
colonized
Objectives of preemptive colonization by pioneer
organisms:
- Discourage further succession by other
organisms
- To extend the reign of pioneer organisms

BUT
- populations better adapted to the altered habitat will
replace the pioneers 2o SUCCESSION
 Events in Community Succession
Virgin
1o SUCCESSION environment

PREEMPTIVE
COLONIZATION

2o SUCCESSION
First colonizer =
pioneer organism*
Types of 2o succession processes

a. Autogenic succession
Microorganisms (pioneer or 2o microorganisms)
modify the habitat and permits new populations
to develop

b. Allogenic succession
When habitat is altered by environmental
factors
 Events in Community Succession
Virgin
1o SUCCESSION environment

PREEMPTIVE
COLONIZATION

2o SUCCESSION
First colonizer =
pioneer organism* CLIMAX COMMUNITY

SUCCESSION ENDS
- Succession ends when a RELATIVELY stable
population (climax community) is formed.

Old school
Classical ecological thinking of thought

- Climax community rarely occur

New
school of
thought
Current ecological thinking
Interactions between
organism and organism
Homeostasis
of the ecosystem
Interactions between
organism and the habitat
 Balance of photosynthesis and
Homeostasis: metabolism e.g. O2 and CO2

- Dynamic balance of processes,

materials and organisms in the
ecosystem and biosphere
Nutrients and waste
Predators and Preys

Determine by the Flow of Energy

Energy flows through the ecosystem in
terms of C-C bonds
Producers Photosynthesis: building of C-C
Autotrophs bonds (storage of
energy)
Consumers and Decomposers Respiration:
Heterotrophs breakage of
C-C bonds to
release energy
Flow of energy and homeostasis in terms of
Autotrophic-Heterotrophic Succession
Autotrophic photosyntesis
Heterotrophic Consumers and Decomposers
Concept: Gross photosynthesis (P) exceeds rate
of community respiration (R) organic matter
accumulates
Autotrophic succession
when P:R > 1
Consequence: accumulation of biomass
Autotrophic succession occurs when:

- Environment devoid of organic matter

- Non limiting supply of solar energy
 Heterotrophic succession
when P:R < 1
Consequence:
(i) consumption (organic matter) is greater than
production
(ii) energy flow through the system decreases
with time
(iii) community gradually dissipates stored
energy supply exhausted extinction of
community
 Other situations (non-damaging heterotrophic
succession)
a) Temporary heterotrophic succession
microbial communities in decompositional
process

b) Continuous organic source is available

 Homeostasis P:R approaches 1
usually observed in established
community
Role of homeostasis:
- to maintain steady-state condition
- to counteract perturbations that would upset
steady state
- to restore initial community when alien
microorganims enter the habitat
Ecological Crisis

When environment of life of a species or a

populations evolves in an unfavorable way to
its survival
Reasons:
a. Degradation of environment after a change
of abiotic factors**
b. Due to increase predation
c. Due to rise in the number of individuals
**Environmental change and ecological crisis

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations

- Increasing pattern
- Cause
increase combustion of fuels
deforestation
Impact of elevated CO2 on various ecosystem:
Oceans

- Atm CO2 diffuse into the surface of

waters dissolves and transform into
carbonates and bicarbonates
- Potential method limited by the mixing of
the surface and deep waters
 CO2 CO2
CO2

CO2 CO2 CO2

CO2

Surface saturated
Bicarbonates and Carbonates

No
mixing
Combine with calcium to form skeletal
structure of organisms CO2
removed from atm
Unable to remove
CO2 from atm
Impact of elevated CO2 on various ecosystem:
Terrestrial
- Plant growth:
Down-regulation process due to
(a) less photosynthetic enzyme produced
(b) less C allocated to the production of leaves
(c) fewer stomata on leaf for CO2 diffusion
Increased starch production in plants
Greenhouse gases and the global climate
- Atm CO2 absorb long-wave or thermal radiation
- CO2 greenhouse gasses
- Other greenhouse gasses:
Methane (CH4)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Ozone (O3)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
- Greenhouse effect: Climate change
Sea level rise and coastal environments
- Rise of sea level
- Major impact on:
a) erosion of shorelines
b) increased flooding
c) disturb water depth
d) temperature
e) salinity
f) turbidity
Ecosystems and Global Climate Change
- Climate change will influence
a) Species distribution
b) Community dynamics
c) Ecosystem processes
Ecosystem Management (EM)

Ecosystem:
A biological community plus all the
abiotic factors influencing that
community
Objective of ecosystem management:
To achieve ecosystem that are resilient,
sustainable and healthy

Resilience: speed at which a

community returns to
its former state after
perturbation
Objective of ecosystem management:
To achieve ecosystem that are resilient,
sustainable and healthy
Sustainability: to keep in existence, maintain
over an indefinite period of
time
Objective of ecosystem management:
To achieve ecosystem that are resilient,
sustainable and healthy
Healthy: balance
To achieve the objective of ecosystem
management:

Most widely used method

POPULATION MONITORING
Strategies in Ecosystem Management:
1. Determine the carrying capacity
2. Determine the availability of resources, habitat,
predators, social interactions
3. Determine the Limits of Acceptable Change (to keep
impacts below carrying capacity by defining thresholds)

Thresholds:
Population monitoring
Densities of exotic plant species
Changes in soil characteristics
Impacts to wildlife
Changes to scenic beauty
Environmental Act in Malaysia
- Environmental Quality Act, 1974.
- Covers:

a) Environmental pollution control

- Water Act 1920
- Clean Air Act 1978
b) Protected areas
- National Land Code 1965
- National Parks Act 1983
- Wildlife Protection Act 1972
- Forestry Act 1984
- Wetland National Policy
1994 -
Antiquities Act 1976