MICROWAVE DEVICES

utline:
Waveguides
Passive Components
Microwave Solid-State Devices
Microwave Tubes
Microwave Antennas
- Assigned lower boundary for microwave communications 1 GHz
- Upper boundary 30 GHz

- Characteristics of signal at microwave frequency:

significant capacitive and inductive reactance
significant transit time (time taken for charge carriers to move
through devices)
smaller antenna size
1. Waveguides
pipe through which an electromagnetic wave travels
operate as high pass filter (cut off low frequencies)
no radiation loss, small dielectric losses (dielectric is air) and smaller
losses due to large surface area

Kinds of waveguides:
1. Rectangular
made of brass or aluminum with silver-plated inside
most common
2. Elliptical cross section
3. Circular cross section
Waveguides

It is a conducting tube through which the energy is

transmitted, in the form of electromagnetic waves.

It is an alternative to cable for frequency of 1 GHz and above.

3
Electromagnetic
Wave
It is made up of magnetic and electric fields that are at
right angles to each other and at right angles to the
direction of propagation. It travels in a straight line at
approximately the speed of light.

4
Modes of Propagation - the possible direction of
distribution of energy

Classification of Modes of
Propagation:
1. Transverse Electric (TE) has the electric field
transverse the direction of propagation, while the
magnetic field is along the propagation direction

2. Transverse Magnetic (TM) has the magnetic field at

right angles to the direction of propagation along the
guide, and the electric field in the direction of
propagation.

5
Format: TEm,n
where: n = indicates the no. of half wave variation
of the electric field along the y or b (height)
dimension.

m = indicates the no. of half wave variation of

the electric field along the x or a (width)
dimension.

6
where: arrows = represent the E field perpendicular to
the sides of the guide.
xs = represent the H field that is going into
the waveguide.
dots = represent the H field that is coming out
of the waveguide.

7
 Types of Waveguides:

A. Rectangular used when energy must be coupled

from the source to a load and both are fixed in place
since they are smaller than circular waveguides for a
given wavelength.

General formula for cut

off wavelength, c: Cut off wavelength for
TEm,0:
2

c 2x


m
2 n


2
c
x y m
10
Cut off wavelength for TE1,0:

2x
c
where: TE1,0 = called the dominant mode, the mode for
the lowest frequency that can be propagated in a
waveguide
x = the width of the waveguide
y = the height of the waveguide

Note: x /2 for dominant mode means no propagation

11
Example:
Find the cutoff frequency for the TE1,0 mode in an air-
dielectric waveguide with an inside cross section of 2cm by 4 cm.
Over what frequency range is the dominant mode the only one
that will propagate?

Ans.
 B. Circular used for rotating systems such as radar
antenna

2r

c K
where: K = 1.84 for dominant mode, for
other modes, refer to the next slide

* for circular waveguide, the dominant mode is the TE1,1 mode, but
the TE0,1 mode is also used for rotating joints (such as rotating radar)

Example:

What is the cut off wavelength that a 2.5 cm wide waveguide

will support the dominant mode (m = 1)? How about for the
next mode (m = 2)?
13
TE (Transverse Electric) Mode for Circular Waveguide

K is different depending for each mode for circular

waveguides. K is also different for TE or TM.

Mode K
TE0,1 3.832
TE1,1 (dominant mode) 1.841
TE2,1 3.054
TE0,2 7.016
TE1,2 5.331
TE2,2 6.706
TE0,3 10.174
TE1,3 8.536
TE2,3 9.970
TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode for Circular Waveguide

Mode K
TM0,1 2.405
TM1,1 (dominant mode) 3.832
TM2,1 5.135
TM0,2 5.520
TM1,2 7.016
TM2,2 8.417
TM0,3 8.654
TM1,3 10.174
TM2,3 11.620
Key wavelength formula for rectangular/circular
waveguide:

Rectangular Circular
Cut off wavelength 2x 3.41r

Longest transmitted 1.6x 3.2r

with little attenuation
Shortest before next 1.1x 2.8r
mode is possible
16
Group Velocity,
Vg
The actual speed at which 2 2
a signal travels down the f
Vg Vc 1 or v g c 1 c
guide. c f

Phase Velocity, Vp

The rate at which the Vc c

Vp
wave appears to move 2
fc
2
along the wall of the 1 1
guide. c f

Note: VgVp = Vc2

17
 Waveguide Characteristic
Impedance:
TE mode: TM mode:

377 2
Z0
2 Z 0 377 1
c
1

c

Impedance of free space = 377 ohms

Example:

A 6 GHz signal is to be propagated in a waveguide

whose width is 7.5 cm. Calculate the characteristic
impedance for TE1,0 mode and TM1,1 mode if the
thickness is 3.75 cm.

18
Example 2:

A 6 GHz signal is to be propagated in the dominant mode in

a rectangular waveguide if its group velocity is to be 90% of
the speed of light, what must be width of the guide?

19
To find the guide wavelength:

g
2 2
f
1 1 c
2a f
Where
free space wavelengt h
g guide wavelengt h

To match impedance:
1. Add shorted stubs of adjustable length
2. Inserting additional capacitance or inductance into the guide
- using tuning screw
Coupling Power into and out of Waveguides:
5 Basic Ways:
1. Uses a probe resembling a quarter-wave monopole antenna

g / 4
insulation

2. Uses a loop to couple with the magnetic field in

the guide

insulation
3. Put a hole in the waveguide

4. Use two probes spaced one-quarter wavelength

apart to launch
a wave in only one direction
5. Using two-hole directional coupler

Characteristics of directional couplers:

1. Insertion loss amount of signal attenuation in the main guide
2. Coupling amount by which the signal in the main guide is greater
than that coupled
to the secondary waveguide.
3. Directivity ratio between the power coupled to the secondary
guide, for signals traveling in the two possible directions
along the main guide
triplines and Microstrips
- transmission lines that can be constructed on a printed circuit board
2. Passive Components

Bends and Tees

E-plane bends changes the

direction
of electric-field lines
H-plane bends changes the
direction
of the magnetic field lines
 Waveguide tees allows one line to branch into two

ane Tee A signal applied to port 1 appears at each of the other ports that are out-of-p
also referred to as a series tee
ane Tee A signal applied to port 1 appears at each of the other ports that are in-phas
also referred to as a shunt tee
rid or magic tee combination of E-plane Tee and H-plane Tee
provide isolation between signals
Input to port 3 with outputs at port 1 & 2 but no output at port 4
example: signal from antenna will be mixed with the local oscillator signal and outputted
to receiver mixer but will be terminated with a matched load to prevent reflection
(a 3dB loss in the tee is experienced by the input signal)
Cavity Resonators

-Resonate at a certain frequency depending on the shapes

of the cavity
-application: wavemeter type of frequency meter that consists
of a cavity with an adjustable plunger
Attenuators & Loads

Attenuators:

1. Carbon Flap current that flows in the flap causes the power loss
2. Rotating Vane electric field orientation determines the current
loss induced
electric field perpendicular to the surface little loss
electric field parallel to the surface more loss

Load:

- Carbon insert will dissipate energy in the guide without reflecting it

culators & Isolators
- based on the magnetic properties of ferrites (ferromagnetic but nonconductive)
ator a device that allows a signal to pass in only one direction such load as
to shield a source from a mismatched

Circulator a very useful device that allows the

separation of signals
 Theory of ferromagnetic materials
ession when a ferrite is subjected to a magnetic field from a permanent magnet, the a
about which an electron spins also begins to spin

rrite Isolator:
When a ferrite slab is inserted in the waveguide, and it is subjected to a magnetic field, the
precession in a ferrite occur at a frequency in the Microwave range. The direction of the
electromagnetic field applied to the ferrite will determine whether it will add up to the sign
or isolate the signal

rrite Circulator:
sed on Faraday rotation phase shift experienced by a wave propagating through a mate
mount of phase shift depends on the length of the ferrite and the strength of the dc
magnetic field to which it is subjected
Principles of Operation
and Construction
The behavior of ferrites is the basis for different
modes of operation for circulators and isolators.
Resonance Isolator
The ferrites are in contact with the waveguide
walls to transfer the heat generated in the ferrite
to the waveguide.
These devices are heavier compared with others
and are not often used nowadays.
Resonance Isolator
Faraday Rotation
Circulator
The Faraday rotation circulator is based on the
rotation of the polarization plane of an rf wave by
the magnetic moments of the ferrite.
Faraday Rotation
Circulator
 Junction Circulator
most common circulator
The principle construction is given
in figure 16: between two outer
conductors are two ferrite discs,
and between them the inner
conductor.
This inner conductor forms a
resonator and the matching
networks to the ports.
Two magnets outside the outer
conductors give the static
magnetic field.
Junction Circulator
Applications

decoupling - of generator and load of amplifier

stages
reducing - intermodulation caused by other
transmitters
- load return loss and vswr
combining - two and more transmitters
- transmitters and receivers on the
same antenna
- amplifier stages in solid state
transmitters
operating one-port-amplifiers
Duplexing

Duplexer
a transmitter and receiver sharing one antenna
when the transmitter sends a signal, the output
goes directly to the antenna port and is isolated
from the receiver
all signals from the antenna go straight to the
receiver and not the transmitter because of the
circular signal flow
Common Application for an
Isolator
The isolator is placed in the measurement path of
a test bench between a signal source and the
device under test (DUT)
any reflections caused by any mismatches will
end up at the termination of the isolator and not
back into the signal source.
3. Microwave Solid-State Devices

Microwave Transistors
- As the frequency increases, the transistor looks like this
- the inductive reactance increases while the capacitive
reactances get smaller resulting to much feedback from
collector to base

ng the following microwave transistor, it solves the stray capacitance and induct

-Instead of wire leads, metal strips were soldered directly

to striplines

-Uses Gallium arsenide to solve mobility problem of carrie

-Uses GaAsFET in the first stage of a satellite-reception
system
Gunn Devices
- also known as transferred-electron device (TED) or Gunn diode
- simpler transit-time devices
- has two terminals, with no junction, a slab of N-type gallium arsenide

Gallium Arsenide mobility of the electrons usually decreases as the electric field strength
increases over a certain range
- just like indium arsenide and gallium phosphide, there is a region where
mobility actually decreases as the field increases known as negative
resistance which
discovered by
J.B. Gunn in 1963
works like an oscillator
where the GaAs slab formed
a domain with a large
electric field and moved
toward the positive terminal
causing negative resistance
transit-time mode or
domain mode or Gunn
mode
Typical applications for a Gunn diode:

local oscillators
voltage controlled oscillators (VCOs)
radar and communication transmitters
Doppler motion detectors
intrusion alarms
police radar detectors
smart munitions
Automotive Forward Looking Radars (AFLRs)

Advantages:
low noise
high frequency operation
medium RF power
Example: A Gunn device has a thickness of 7m. At what frequency will it oscillate in the
transit-time mode?

Solution: The transit time of an electron can be found from the basic velocity relationship
d
v Where v velocity, m/s drift velocity = 100km/s
t d distance, m
t time, s

d 7 x10 6 m Which is the period T of oscillation, hence frequency is

t 5
7 x10 11 s
v 1x10 m / s

1 1
f 11
14.3GHz
T 7 x10 s
IMPATT Diodes

IMPATT Impact Avalanche and Transit Time

- has a P-N junction, a four-layer device
- operates in reverse-breakdown (avalanche) region
-width is made such that the transit time of an electron across this region
is of the
period at the operating frequency
- reversed bias at just below its breakdown voltage
- uses avalanche
- 10 W more than Gunn diode power level but noisy because of avalanche
breakdown
- some use TRAPATT diode (Trapped Plasma Avalanched Triggered Transit)
(at 100W in digital operation) but expensive and a lot noisier than
IMPATT
PIN Diodes

-used as an electronic switch and an attenuator

-Has small capacitance when reversed biased

Intrinsic (lightly doped) n, p, or pn layer

The term intrinsic is applied to any semiconductor

material that has been carefully refined to reduce the
number of impurities to a very low level essentially as
pure as can be made available through modern technology.
Properties

The wide intrinsic region makes the PIN

diode an inferior rectifier (the normal
function of a diode), but it makes the PIN
diode suitable for attenuators, fast switches,
photodetectors, and high voltage power
electronics applications.
Reverse Bias (OFF) State
A small series junction capacitance leads to a
relatively high diode impedance

Typicalvalues for the parameters are:

Cj = 1pF or less
Li = 0.5 nH or less
Rr = 5 or less
Forward Bias (ON) State
A forward bias current removes the junction capacitance and
leaves the diode in a low impedance state

Typical values for the parameters are:

Li = 0.5 nH or less
Rf = 1 or less
Operation

PIN diode operation can be likened to filling

up a water bucket with a hole on the side.
The diode will conduct current once the
flooded electrons and holes reach an
equilibrium point, where the number of
electrons is equal to the number of holes in
the intrinsic region.
Characteristics

There is a lot ofstored chargein the

intrinsic region. At low frequencies, the
charge can be removed and the diode turns
off. At higher frequencies, there is not
enough time to remove the charge, so the
diode never turns off.
Applications
1. RF switches

. Under zero or reverse bias, a PIN diode has a

lowcapacitance. The low capacitance will not
pass much of anRF signal. Under a forward
bias of 1 mA, a typical PIN diode will have an
RF resistance of about 1ohm, making it a
goodRF conductor. Consequently, the PIN
diode makes a good RF switch.
 Single-pole PIN Diode
Switch

Series Configuration
Note: The DC blocks have very low
impedance at RF operating frequency
while the RF choke inductors have very
high RF impedance
Shunt Configuration
2. RF and Microwave Variable Attenuator

. By changing the bias current through a

PIN diode, it's possible to quickly change
the RF resistance.

. At high frequencies, the PIN diode

appears as a resistor whose resistance is
an inverse function of its forward current.
Consequently, PIN diodes can be used in
some variable attenuator designs as
amplitude modulators or output leveling
circuits.
3. Limiters

. PIN diodes are sometimes used as input

protection devices for high frequency
test probes. If the input signal is within
range, the PIN diode has little impact as
a small capacitance. If the signal is large,
then the PIN diode starts to conduct and
becomes a resistor that shunts most of
the signal to ground.
3. Photodetectors

. As a photodetector, the PIN diode is

reverse biased. Under reverse bias, the
diode ordinarily does not conduct (save a
small dark current or Isleakage). A
photon entering the intrinsic region frees
a carrier. The reverse bias field sweeps
the carrier out of the region and creates
a current.
 Varactor Diodes
-used in frequency multipliers
-Can be used to generate microwave signals with crystal-controlled stablity
-Step-recovery or snap diode which are variation of a varactor can also be used as a multiplier

Yttrium-Iron-Garnet Devices
-YIG is a type of a ferrite used in place of a resonant cavity
-Can vary the frequency of the oscillator by varying the dc current to an electromagnet that genera
the field
Dielectric Resonators
-A resonant cavity that is made of a solid slab of a dielectric material such as alumina
-Inexpensive but has a fixed frequency not like YIG and needs no magnet

Microwave Integrated Circuits

-Has a gain of 18dB, Pout=100mW max with
frequency of 6GHz
4. Microwave Tubes

Magnetrons
-Invented in 1921
-high power, fixed-frequency oscillators, unstable, simple, rugged, with 40% to 70% efficiency
-Used in radar transmitters (MW) and microwave ovens (several hundred watts)
Cyclotron frequency rate at which the electrons move around the
cathode

Crossed-field tube magnetrons

Slow-wave structure circular arrangement of resonant cavities

To compute for the average power:

Pavg Pp D Where Pavg - Average power

PP - Pulse power
D duty cycle
Ton
D
TT
TOn - On time per operating cycle
TT - Total time per operating cycle
 KLYSTRONS

-Preferred over magnetrons because it has high power (up to MW, has a high-
stability amplification at f > 30 GHz
-Found in UHF TV transmitters
-2 kinds:
1. Reflex klystron small tube used as an oscillator, obsolete
2. Multicavity used as a power amplifier
- Transfer energy from stream of electrons to an electromagnetic wave
moving in a slow-wave structure
- Electrons are formed into a beam that moves in a straight line past a
series of resonant cavities
- Also called linear-beam tube
TWT Travelling Wave Tube
- moderate-power amplifiers
- wide bandwidth
- used by satellites
- like the Klystron, it is a linear-beam tube
- has a slow-wave structure

1. Electron gun
2. RF input
3. Magnets
4. Attenuator
5. Helix coil
6. RF output
7. Vacuum tube
8. Collector
5. MICROWAVE ANTENNAS

1. Horn Antenna can be viewed as impedance transformers that match

waveguide impedances to that of free space
2. Patch Antenna consists of a thin metallic patch placed a small fraction
of a wavelength above a conducting ground place
- low-cost, compact at UHF and microwave frequencies and have
a gain on the order of 6 dBi
Slot Antenna a waveguide with a hole
- similar radiation pattern with dipole with a plane reflector
behind it
- much less gain
- usually combined with many other slots to make a
phased array