The Cellular Concept

3rd Chapter
Wireless Communication
By Theodore S. Rappaport
2nd Edition

1
Cellular Systems-Basic Concepts
Cellular system solves the problem of spectral congestion.
Offers high capacity in limited spectrum.
High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage area of
each BS to a small geographical area called cell.
Replaces high powered transmitter with several low power
transmitters.
Each BS is allocated a portion of total channels and nearby
cells are allocated completely different channels.
All available channels are allocated to small no of neighboring
BS.
Interference between neighboring BSs is minimized by
allocating different channels.

2
Cellular Systems-Basic Concepts
Same frequencies are reused by spatially
separated BSs.
Interference between co-channels stations is
kept below acceptable level.
Additional radio capacity is achieved.
Frequency Reuse-Fix no of channels serve
an arbitrarily large no of subscribers

3
Frequency Reuse
used by service providers to improve the efficiency of a
cellular network and to serve millions of subscribers using a
limited radio spectrum
After covering a certain distance a radio wave gets attenuated
and the signal falls below a point where it can no longer be
used or cause any interference
A transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will
have only a limited coverage area
Beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by
another transmitter.
The entire network coverage area is divided into cells based on the
principle of frequency reuse

4
Frequency Reuse
A cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network; is the
area around an antenna where a specific frequency range is
used.
when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the
new cell takes over the signal transmission

a cluster is a group of adjacent cells, usually 7 cells; no

frequency reuse is done within a cluster

the frequency spectrum is divided into sub-bands and each

sub-band is used within one cell of the cluster

in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated zones

cells are larger

5
Frequency Reuse
The design process of selecting and
allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is
called frequency reuse or frequency
planning.
Cell labeled with same letter use the same
set of frequencies.
Cell Shapes:
Circle, Square, Triangle and Hexagon.
Hexagonal cell shape is conceptual , in
reality it is irregular in shape 6
Frequency Reuse

7
Frequency Reuse
In hexagonal cell model, BS transmitter can
be in centre of cell or on its 3 vertices.
Centered excited cells use omni directional
whereas edge excited cells use directional
antennas.
A cellular system having S duplex channels,
each cell is allocated k channels(k<S).
If S channels are allocated to N cells into
unique and disjoint channels, the total no of
available channel is S=kN.

8
Frequency Reuse
N cells collectively using all the channels is called a cluster, is
a group of adjacent cells.
If cluster if repeated M times, the capacity C of system is
given as
C=MkN=MS
Capacity of system is directly proportional to the no of times
cluster is repeated.
Reducing the cluster size N while keeping the cell size
constant, more clusters are required to cover the given area
and hence more capacity.
Co-channel interference is dependent on cluster size, large
cluster size less interference and vice versa.

9
Frequency Reuse
The Frequency Reuse factor is given as 1/N, each cell is
assigned 1/N of total channels.
Lines joining a cell and each of its neighbor are separated by
multiple of 600,certain cluster sizes and cell layout possible
Geometery of hexagon is such that no of cells per cluster i.e
N, can only have values which satisfy the equation
N=i2+ij+j2
N, the cluster size is typically 4, 7 or 12.
In GSM normally N =7 is used.
i and j are integers, for i=3 and j=2 N=19.
Example from Book

10
Locating co-channel Cell

11
Channel Assignment Strategies
A scheme for increasing capacity and minimizing interference
is required.
CAS can be classified as either fixed or dynamic
Choice of CAS impacts the performance of system.
In Fixed CA each cell is assigned a predetermined set of
voice channels
Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the
unused channel in that particular cell
If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call is blocked.
The user does not get service.
In variation of FCA, a cell can borrow channels from its
neighboring cell if its own channels are full.

12
Dynamic Channel Assignment
Voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently.
Each time a call request is made, the BS request a channel
from the MSC.
MSC allocates a channel to the requesting cell using an
algorithm that takes into account
likelihood of future blocking
The reuse distance of the channel ( should not cause interference)
Other parameters like cost
To ensure min QoS, MSC only allocates a given frequency if
that frequency is not currently in use in the cell or any other
cell which falls within the limiting reuse distance.
DCA reduce the likelihood of blocking and increases capacity
Requires the MSC to collect realtime data on channel
occupancy and traffic distribution on continous basis.

13
Hand-off
Mobile moves into a different cell during a conversation, MSC
transfers the call to new channel belonging to new BS
Handoff operation involves identifying the new BS and
allocation of voice and control signal to channels associated
with new BS
Must be performed successfully, infrequently and impercitble to user
To meet these requirements an optimum signal level must be
defined to initiate a handoff.
Min usuable signal for acceptable voice qualtiy -90 to -100 dBm
A slight higher value is used as threshold

14
Handoff

By looking at the variations of signal strength from either BS it is

possible to decide on the optimum area where handoff can take
place

15
16
Hand-off strategies
Handoff is made when received signal at the BS falls below a
certain threshold
During handoff: to avoid call termination, safety margin should
exist and should not be too large or small
=Power_handoff Power_min usable
Large results in unecesarry handoff and for small
unsufficient time to complete handoff, so carefully chosen to
meet the requirements.
Fig a, handoff not made and signal falls below min acceptable
level to keep the channel active.
Can happen due to excessive delay by MSC in assigning
handoff, or when threshold is set to small.
Excessive delay may occur during high traffic conditions due to
computional loading or non avialablilty of channels in nearby cells

17
Hand-off
In deciding when to handoff , it is important to ensure that the
drop in signal level is not due to momentary fading.

In order to ensure this the BS monitors the signal for a certain

period of time before initiating a handoff

The length of time needed to decide if handoff is necessary

depends on the speed at which the mobile is moving

18
Hand-off strategies
In 1st generation analog cellular systems, the signal strength
measurements are made by the BS and are supervised by the
MSC.
A spare Rx in base station (locator Rx) monitors RSS of
RVC's in neighboring cells
Tells Mobile Switching Center about these mobiles and

their channels
Locator Rx can see if signal to this base station is

significantly better than to the host base station

MSC monitors RSS from all base stations & decides on

handoff

19
Hand-off strategies
In 2nd generation systems Mobile Assisted Handoffs
(MAHO)are used
In MAHO, every MS measures the received power from the
surrounding BS and continually reports these values to the
corresponding BS.
Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a neighboring BS
exceeds that of current BS
MSC no longer monitors RSS of all channels
reduces computational load considerably
enables much more rapid and efficient handoffs
imperceptible to user

20
Soft Handoff
CDMA spread spectrum cellular systems provides a unique
handoff capability
Unlike channelized wireless systems that assigns different
radio channel during handoff (called hard handoff), the spread
spectrum MS share the same channel in every cell
The term handoff here implies that a different BS handles the
radio communication task
The ability to select between the instantaneous received
signals from different BSs is called soft handoff

21
Inter system Handoff
If a mobile moves from one cellular system to a different
system controlled by a different MSC, an inter-system handoff
is necessary
MSC engages in intersystem handoff when signal becomes
weak in a given cell and MSC cannot find another cell within
its system to transfer the on-going call
Many issues must be resolved
Local call may become long distance call
Compatibility between the two MSCs

22
Prioritizing Handoffs
Issue: Perceived Grade of Service (GOS) service quality
as viewed by users
quality in terms of dropped or blocked calls (not voice
quality)
assign higher priority to handoff vs. new call request
a dropped call is more aggravating than an occasional
blocked call
Guard Channels
% of total available cell channels exclusively set aside for
handoff requests
makes fewer channels available for new call requests
a good strategy is dynamic channel allocation (not fixed)
adjust number of guard channels as needed by demand

so channels are not wasted in cells with low traffic

23
Prioritizing Handoffs
Queuing of Handoff Requests
use time delay between handoff threshold and minimum useable
signal level to place a blocked handoff request in queue
a handoff request can "keep trying" during that time period,
instead of having a single block/no block decision
prioritize requests (based on mobile speed) and handoff as
needed
calls will still be dropped if time period expires

24
Practical Handoff Considerations
Problems occur because of a large range of mobile velocities
pedestrian vs. vehicle user
Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells larger # handoffs
MSC load is heavy when high speed users are passed
between very small cells
Umbrella Cells
use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to provide
large and small cell coverage
multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single location if
necessary (saves on obtaining new tower licenses)
large cell high speed traffic fewer handoffs
small cell low speed traffic
example areas: interstate highway passing through urban center,
office park, or nearby shopping mall

25
Umbrella Cells

26
Typical handoff parameters

Analog cellular (1st generation)

threshold margin 6 to 12 dB
total time to complete handoff 8 to 10 sec

Digital cellular (2nd generation)

total time to complete handoff 1 to 2 sec
lower necessary threshold margin 0 to 6 dB
enabled by mobile assisted handoff

27
Reuse Ratio:
For hexagonal cell reuse distance is given by
D=R(3N)
Where R is cell size or cell radius and N is cluster size
D increases as we increase N
Reuse factor is given by Q=D/R=(3N)

28
Interference
Goals for this section
Co-Channel
Adjacent Channel
How to calculate signal to interference ratio

29
Interference
Interference is major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio. It limits the
capacity and increases the no of dropped
calls.
Sources of interference include
Another mobile in same cell
A call in progress in a neighboring cell
Other BSs operating in the same frequency band

30
Effects of Interference
Interference in voice channels causes
Crosstalk
Noise in background
Interference in control channels causes
Error in digital signaling, which causes
Missed calls
Blocked calls
Dropped calls

31
Interference
Two major types of Interferences
Co-channel Interference (CCI)

Adjacent channel Interference (ACI)

CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the same frequency
set. These cells using the same frequency set are called Co-
channel cells
ACI is caused due to the signals that are adjacent in
frequency

32
Co-channel Interference
Increase base station Tx power to improve radio signal
reception?
will also increase interference into other co-channel cells
by the same amount
no net improvement
Separate co-channel cells by some minimum distance to
provide sufficient isolation from propagation of radio
signals?
if all cell sizes, transmit powers, and coverage
patterns same co-channel interference is
independent of Tx power

33
Co-channel Interference
co-channel interference depends on:
R : cell radius
D : distance to base station of nearest co-channel cell where D=R(3N)

if D/R then spatial separation relative to cell coverage area

improved isolation from co-channel RF energy

Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio

hexagonal cells Q = D/R = 3N
Smaller value of Q provides larger capacity, but higher CCI
Hence there is tradeoff between capacity and interference.
small Q small cluster size more frequency reuse larger
system capacity
small Q small cell separation increased CCI

34
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
The Signal-to-Interference (S/I) for a mobile is

S is desired signal power ,Ii : interference power from ith co-channel cell
The average received power at distance d is
Pr=Po (d/do)-n
The RSS decays as a power law of the distance of separation
between transmitter and receiver
Where Po is received power at reference distance do and n is the
path loss exponent and ranges between 2-4
If Di is the distance of ith interferer, the received power is
proportional to (Di)-n
35
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
The S/I for mobile is given by

S Rn ( D / R) n ( 3N )n Q4
i0 6

I 6 6 6
(D )
i 1
i
n

With only the first tier(layer of) equidistant interferers.

For a hexagonal cluster size, which always have 6 CC cell in
first tier

36
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
The MS is at cell
boundary

The aproximate S/I is

given by, both in terms
of R and D, along with
channel reuse ratio Q

37
Example S/I
Examples for Problem 2.3
TDMA can tolerate S/I = 15 dB
What is the optimal value of N for omni-directional antennas? Path loss =
4. Co-channel Interference

cluster size N =7 (choices 4,7,12)

path loss exponent (means)n=4
co-channel reuse ratio Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=4.582576
number of neighboring cells io=6 # of sides of hexagon
signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =73.5
convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I) =18.66287dB

S/I is greater than required, it will work.

38
Example S/I
cluster size N=4 (choices 4,7,12)
path loss exponent (means) n=4
co-channel reuse ratio Q= sqrt(3N)=3.464102
Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=3.464102
number of neighboring cells io=6 ,# of sides of hexagon
signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =24
convert to dB, S/I= 10log(S/I)=13.80211dB
S/I is less than required, it will not work!

cluster size N=7

path loss exponent n=3
Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
number of neighboring cells io= 6, # of sides of hexagon
signal to interference ratio=S/I= (D/R)^n / io =16.03901
convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I)=12.05178dB
S/I is less than required, it will not work!

39
Adjacent Channel Interference
Results from imperfect receiver filters, allowing nearby frequencies
to leak into pass-band.
Can be minimized by careful filtering and channel assignments.
Channels are assigned such that frequency separations between
channels are maximized.
For example, by sequentially assigning adjacent bands to different
cells
Total 832 channels, divided into two groups with 416 channels each.
Out of 416, 395 are voice and 21 are control channels.
395 channels are divided into 21 subsets, each containing almost
19 channels, with closet channel 21 channels away
If N=7 is used, each cell uses 3 subsets, assigned in such a way
that each channel in a cell is 7 channels away.

40
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314
freq

2
B9
4 5
G 11 C 12
1
A8
6 7
F 13 D14
3
E10

Frequency Planning/Channel Assignment

41
42
Learning Objectives

Concept of Trunking
Key definitions in Trunking /Traffic Theory
Erlang-(unit of traffic)
Grade of Service
Two Types of Trunked Systems
Trunking Efficiency

43
Trunking & Grade of Service
Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accommodate a
large number of users in a limited radio spectrum.

Trunking allows a large no of users to share a relatively small

number of channels in a cell by providing access to each user,
on demand, from a pool of available channels.

In a trunked radio system (TRS) each user is allocated a

channel on a per call basis, upon termination of the call, the
previously occupied channel is immediately returned to the
pool of available channels.

44
Key Definitions
Setup Time: Time required to allocate a radio channel to a
requesting user
Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at the time of
request, due to congestion(lost call)
Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by
H(in seconds)
Request Rate: The average number of calls requests per unit
time( )
Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization or the
average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs.
Dimensionless quantity. Denoted by A
Load: Traffic intensity across the entire TRS (Erlangs)

45
Erlang-a unit of traffic
The fundamentals of trunking theory were developed by
Erlang, a Danish mathematician, the unit bears his name.
An Erlang is a unit of telecommunications traffic
measurement.
Erlang represents the continuous use of one voice path.
It is used to describe the total traffic volume of one hour
A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as having a load
of one Erlang
For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic
For 1 channel
Min load=0 Erlang (0% time utilization)
Max load=1 Erlang (100% time utilization)

46
Erlang-a unit of traffic
For example, if a group of 100 users made 30 calls in one
hour, and each call had an average call duration(holding time)
of 5 minutes, then the number of Erlangs this represents is
worked out as follows:

Minutes of traffic in the hour = number of calls x duration

Minutes of traffic in the hour = 30 x 5 = 150
Hours of traffic in the hour = 150 / 60 = 2.5
Traffic Intensity= 2.5 Erlangs

47
Traffic Concepts
Traffic Intensity offered by each user(Au): Equals average call
arrival rate multiplied by the holding time(service time)
Au=H(Erlangs)

Total Offered Traffic Intensity for a system of U users (A):

A =U*Au(Erlangs)

Traffic Intensity per channel, in a C channel trunked system

Ac=U*Au/C(Erlangs)

48
Trunking & Grade of Service
In a TRS, when a particular user requests service and all the
available radio channels are already in use , the user is
blocked or denied access to the system. In some systems a
queue may be used to hold the requesting users until a
channel becomes available.
Trunking systems must be designed carefully in order to
ensure that there is a low likelihood that a user will be blocked
or denied access.
The likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood that a
call experiences a delay greater than a certain queuing time is
called Grade of Service (GOS).

49
Trunking & Grade of Service
Grade of Service (GOS): Measure of ability of a user to
access a trunked system during the busiest hour.
Measure of the congestion which is specified as a
probability.

The probability of a call being blocked

Blocked calls cleared(BCC) or Lost Call Cleared(LCC) or
Erlang B systems

The probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain

amount of time before being granted access
Blocked call delayed or Lost Call Delayed(LCD) or Erlang
C systems

50
Blocked Call Cleared Systems
When a user requests service, there is a minimal call set-up
time and the user is given immediate access to a channel if
one is available

If channels are already in use and no new channels are

available, call is blocked without access to the system

The user does not receive service, but is free to try again later

All blocked calls are instantly returned to the user pool

51
Modeling of BCC Systems
The Erlang B model is based on following assumptions :
Calls are assumed to arrive with a Poisson distribution
There are nearly an infinite number of users
Call requests are memory less ,implying that all users, including blocked
users, may request a channel at any time
All free channels are fully available for servicing calls until all channels
are occupied
The probability of a user occupying a channel(called service time) is
exponentially distributed. Longer calls are less likely to happen
There are a finite number of channels available in the trunking pool.
Inter-arrival times of call requests are independent of each other

52
Modeling of BCC Systems
Erlang B formula is given by
Pr[blocking]= (AC/C ! )

where C is the number of trunked channels offered by a

trunked radio system and A is the total offered traffic.

53
Erlang B

54
Example 3.4
How many users can be supported for 0.5% blocking
probability for the following number of trunked channels in a
BCC system? (a) 5, (b) 10,(c)=20. Assumed that each user
generates 0.1 Erlangs of traffic.
Solution
Given C=5, GOS=0.005, Au=0.1,
From graph/Table using C=5 and GOS=0.005,A=1.13
Total Number of users U=A/Au=1.13/0.1=11 users
Given C=10, GOS=0.005, Au=0.1,
From graph/Table using C=5 and GOS=0.005,A=3.96
Total Number of users U=A/Au=3.96/0.1=39 users
Given C=20, GOS=0.005, Au=0.1,
From graph/Table using C=20 and GOS=0.005,A=11.10
Total Number of users U=A/Au=11.10/0.1=110 users

55
Erlang B Trunking GOS

56
BCC System Example
Assuming that each user in a system generates a traffic
intensity of 0.2 Erlangs, how many users can be supported for
0.1% probability of blocking in an Erlang B system for a
number of trunked channels equal to 60.
Solution 1:
System is an Erlang B
Au = 0.2 Erlangs
Pr [Blocking] = 0.001
C = 60 Channels
From the Erlang B figure, we see that
A 40 Erlangs
Therefore U=A/Au=40/0.02=2000users.

57
Blocked Call Delayed(BCD) Systems
Queues are used to hold call requests that are initially blocked
When a user attempts a call and a channel is not immediately
available, the call request may be delayed until a channel
becomes available
Mathematical modeling of such systems is done by Erlang C
formula
The Erlang C model is based on following assumptions :
Similar to those of Erlang B
Additionally, if offered call cannot be assigned a channel, it is
placed in a queue of infinite length
Each call is then serviced in the order of its arrival

58
Blocked Call Delayed Systems
Erlang C formula which gives likelihood of a call not having
immediate access to a channel (all channels are already in
use)

59
Erlang C

60
Modeling of BCD Systems
Probability that any caller is delayed in queue for a wait time
greater than t seconds is given as GOS of a BCD System
The probability of a call getting delayed for any period of time
greater than zero is
P[delayed call is forced to wait > t sec]=P[delayed] x Conditional
P[delay is >t sec]

Mathematically;
Pr[delay>t] = Pr [delay>0] Pr [delay>t| delay>0]
Where P[delay>t| delay>0]= e(-(C-A)t/H)
Pr[delay>t] = Pr [delay>0] e(-(C-A)t/H)
where C = total number of channels, t =delay time of interest, H=average
duration of call

61
Trunking Efficiency
Trunking efficiency is a measure of the number of users which
can be offered a particular GOS with a particular configuration
of fixed channels.
The way in which channels are grouped can substantially alter
the number of users handled by a trunked system.
Example:
10 trunked channels at a GOS of 0.01 can support 4.46
Erlangs, where as two groups of 5 trunked channels can
support 2x1.36=2.72 Erlangs of traffic
10 trunked channels can offer 60% more traffic at a
specific GOS than two 5 channel trunks.
Therefore, if in a certain situation we sub-divide the total channels in a cell
into smaller channel groups then the total carried traffic will reduce with
increasing number of groups

62
Erlang B Trunking GOS

63
Improving Capacity
As demand for service increases, system designers have to provide
more channel per unit coverage area

Common Techniques are: Cell Splitting, Sectoring and Microcell

Zoning

Cell Splitting increases the number of BS deployed and allows an

orderly growth of the cellular system

Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control interference

Micro cell Zoning distributes the coverage of cell and extends the
cell boundary to hard-to-reach areas

64
Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell
into smaller cells with
their own BS
a corresponding reduction in antenna height
a corresponding reduction in transmit power

Splitting the cell reduces the cell size and thus more number
of cells have to be used
For the new cells to be smaller in size the transmit power of
these cells must be reduced.
Idea is to keep Q=D/R constant while decreasing R

More number of cells more number of clusters more

channels high capacity

65
Cells are split to add channels
with no new spectrum usage
Example S/I
cluster size N=4 (choices 4,7,12)
path loss exponent (means) n=4
co-channel reuse ratio Q= sqrt(3N)=3.464102
Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=3.464102
number of neighboring cells io=6 ,# of sides of hexagon
signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =24
convert to dB, S/I= 10log(S/I)=13.80211dB
S/I is less than required, it will not work!

cluster size N=7

path loss exponent n=3
Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
number of neighboring cells io= 6, # of sides of hexagon
signal to interference ratio=S/I= (D/R)^n / io =73.334
convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I)=18.65dB
S/I is less than required, it will work!

67
Cell Splitting-Power Issues
Suppose the cell radius of new cells is reduced by half
What is the required transmit power for these new cells??
Pr[at old cell boundary]=Pt1R-n
Pr[at new cell boundary]= Pt2(R/2) n
where Pt1and Pt2are the transmit powers of the larger and
smaller cell base stations respectively, and n is the path loss
exponent.
So, Pt2= Pt1/2n
If we take n=3 and the received powers equal to each other, then
Pt2=Pt1/8
In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 9dB in order
to fill in the original coverage area while maintaining the S/I
requirement

68
Illustration of cell splitting in 3x3 square
centered around base station A

69
Cell Splitting
In practice not all the cells are split at the same time hence different
size cells will exist simultaneously.

In such situations, special care needs to be taken to keep the

distance between co-channel cells at the required minimum, and
hence channel assignments become more complicated.

To overcome handoff problem:

Channels in the old cell must be broken down into two channel groups, one for
smaller cell and other for larger cell
The larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed traffic so that handoffs occur
less frequently
At start small power group has less channels and large power group has large no
of channels, at maturity of the system large power group does not have any
channel

70
Umbrella Cells

71
72
Sectoring
In this approach
first SIR is improved using directional antennas,

capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of

cells in a cluster thus increasing frequency reuse

The CCI decreased by replacing the single omni-directional antenna

by several directional antennas, each radiating within a specified
sector

73
Sectoring
A directional antenna transmits to and receives from only a fraction
of total of the co-channel cells. Thus CCI is reduced

74
Problems with Sectoring
Increases the number of antennas at each BS

Decrease in trunking efficiency due to sectoring(dividing the

bigger pool of channels into smaller groups)

Increase number of handoffs(sector-to sector)

Good news:Many modern BS support sectoring and related

handoff without help of MSC

75
Microcell Zone Concept
The Problems of sectoring can be addressed by Microcell
Zone Concept
A cell is conceptually divided into microcells or zones
Each microcell(zone) is connected to the same base
station(fiber/microwave link)
Doing something in middle of cell splitting and sectoring by
extracting good points of both
Each zone uses a directional antenna
Each zone radiates power into the cell.
MS is served by strongest zone
As mobile travels from one zone to another, it retains the
same channel, i.e. no hand off
The BS simply switches the channel to the next zone site

76
Micro Zone Cell Concept

77
Microcell Zone Concept
Reduced Interference (Zone radius is small so small and
directional antennas are used).

Decrease in CCI improves the signal quality and capacity.

No loss in trunking efficiency (all channels are used by all

cells).

No extra handoffs.

Increase in capacity (since smaller cluster size can be used).

78
Repeaters for Range Extension
Useful for hard to reach areas
Buildings
Tunnels
Valleys

Radio transmitters called Repeaters can be used to provide

coverage in these area
Repeaters are bi-directional
Rx signals from BS
Amplify the signals
Re-radiate the signals
Received noise and interference is also re-radiated

79