H.

Tracking Radar
 INTRODUCTION
Basic operating principle
Tracking radars
Techniques of target detection
Examples of monopulse radar systems
 RADAR FUNCTIONS
NORMAL RADAR FUNCTIONS
1. Range (from pulse delay)
2. Velocity (from Doppler frequency shift)
3. Azimuth and Elevation (from antenna pointing)

. SIGNATURE ANALYSIS and INVERSE SCATTERING

1. Target size (from magnitude of return)
2. Target shape and components (return as a function of
direction)
3. Moving parts (modulation of the return)
4. Material composition
 SLANT RANGE

P
DISTANCE TO
TARGET = DT
(SLANT RANGE)

DT
E
N

ANTENNA
O ROTATION

S
W
 AZIMUTH ANGLE

P
AZIMUTH ANGLE = AT

DT
AT = NOPI
PI
TRUE E
N
NORTH AT
ANTENNA
O ROTATION

S
W
 H.P
ELEVATION ANGLE

DT
ANGLE OF ELEVATION = ET
PI
E
N
ET = 0PPI ANTENNA
O ROTATION

S
W
 TRACKING RADAR
Measures the coordinates and provides data to
determine target path
Tracking can be performed in range, angle and
doppler
Classified into two types
Continuous tracking radar
Track-While-Scan radar
Acquisition radar designates targets to the tracking
radar
 TRACKING RADAR

MISSILE TRACKING

SPACE TRACKING MISSILE

APPLICATIONS RADAR
GUIDANCE

INSTRUMENTATION
RADARS
Single Target Tracker
This is for single target with rapid data
rate.
10 Observations per second is very
typical
Closed loop servo system is used to
keep the error between the target and
antenna look direction very less
Automatic Detection
and Track
Tracking is part of air surveillance
Rate depends on the time for the
antenna to make one rotation
It can simultaneously track a large no. of
targets
But it has open loop system
Phased Array Radar
A large number of targets can be held in
track
This is done on time sharing basis
It combines the rapid update rate of a
single target tracker with the ability of
ADT to hold many targets in track
The cost is very very high.
Track while scan
This rapidly scans a limited angular
sector to maintain tracks with a
moderate data rate on more than one
target within the coverage of antenna
( another name for ADT).
Angle Tracking
When a target is approaching, the
antenna is to be moved continuously to
track the target
To determine the direction in which the
antenna beam needs to be moved, a
measurement has to be made at two
different beam positions.
Contd..
For this the antenna is operated in
difference mode where in there will be a
null along the boresight direction with
two main lobes on either side.
This is achieved by giving equal and
opposite phase signals to both sides of
the antenna array.
The two main lobes are said to be
squinted with a squint angle of q
relative to boresight.
Contd.
The crossover of the two beams determines
the boresight direction.
The tracking radar has to position the two
beams so that 0 = T.
If there is more signal output when a beam is
placed on the right than on the left with
reference to the target, it means that antenna
is to be moved right so that the left beam can
see more target size and can give more output
equal to that of the right beam.
Contd
This is for one coordinate
If two additional positions are taken in
the orthogonal plane, another angle can
be tracked.
 TRACKING RADAR
Error signal generating methods
1. Sequential lobing
2. Conical scan
3. Simultaneous lobing (monopulse)
 SEQUENTIAL LOBING am
ax
is

Be
Two lobes are required to
track in each axis, each Beam X Beam Y
lobe must be sequentially return return

switched four pulses are

required
(a)
The radar measures the
returned signal levels
The voltages in the two
switched position should Beam X
return
be equal Beam Y
return

(b)
SEQUENTIAL LOBING
Lobe X (time1) X

Lobe Y (time2)
Y

Two lobes are required to

X Z azimuth
track in each axis. As each
lobe must be sequentially
switched a total of four
Y pulses are required for
tracking in both axes
elevation
Contd..
A single beam is switched between two
squinted angular positions to obtain an
angle measurement.
The error signal is obtained from a
target not on the switching axis. The
direction in which to move the beam to
bring the target on boresight is found by
observing which beam position has the
larger signal.
Contd
When the echo signals in the two beam
positions are equal, the target is on axis
and its direction is that of the switching
axis.
If orthogonal angle information is
needed, two more switching positions
are needed
Contd
So, two dimensional sequentially lobing
radar might consists of four feed horns
illuminating a single reflector antenna.

An improvement over this can be a

single squinted feed which could be
rotated continuously. This results in
conical scan.
 CONICAL SCAN

The antenna is continuously

rotated at an offset angle.

Redirection of beam
Rotating feed
s
Nutating feed

Rotating
feed
Feed Types
When the feed is designed to maintain
the plane of polarization as it rotates, it
is called nutating feed.
A rotating feed is one which causes the
plane of polarization to rotate.
Comparison of feeds
A rotating polarization can cause the
amplitude of the target echo signal to
change with time even for a stationary
target on axis.
The nutating feed is more complex
Contd
A typical conical scan rotation speed
might be in the vicinity of 30 rev/sec.
The same motor also drives a two phase
reference generator with electrical
outputs at the conical scan frequency
that are 900 apart in phase.
These two outputs serve as reference
signals to extract the elevation and
azimuth errors.
Receiver details
The receiver is a superhet except for features
related to the conical scan tracking.
The error signal is extracted in the video after
the second detector.
Range gating eliminates noise and excludes
other targets.
The error signal from the range gate is
compared with both the elevation and azimuth
reference signals in the angle error detectors.
Operational Aspects
The angle error outputs are amplified
and used to drive the antenna elevation
and azimuth servo motors.
The video signal is a pulse train
modulated by the conical scan
frequency.
It is usually convenient to stretch the
pulses before low pass filtering so as to
increase the energy at the conical scan
frequency
 CONICAL SCAN ax
is
am
Be

All target returns have the

same amplitude
(zero error signal)

V(t)

Thus, no action is required VO

Time(t)
 CONICAL SCAN is
ax
a m
Be

B A

V(t)

Vo

Time(t)
Contd..
Because of the rotation of the squinted
beam and the targets offset from the
rotation axis, the amplitude of the echo
signal will be modulated at a frequency
equal to the beam rotation frequency.
 The amplitude of the modulation
depends on angular distance between
the target direction and the rotation axis.

The location of the target in two angle

coordinates determines the phase of the
conical scan modulation relative to
conical scan beam rotation.
Practical points
To perform analog-to digital conversion
pulse stretching is accomplished by
sample and hold circuit.
The PRF must be sufficiently large
compared to conical scan frequency for
proper filtering and avoiding inaccuracy
of the angle measurement.
The PRF must be atleast four times of
conical scan frequency but normally 10
times.
 AGC
It has the purpose of maintaining
constant angle error sensitivity in spite
of amplitude fluctuations or changes of
the echo signal due to change in range.
AGC is also important for avoiding
saturation by large signals which could
cause the loss of the scanning
modulation and the accompanying error
signal.
Practical issue
The gain of the AGC loop at the conical
scan frequency should be low so that
error signal will not be suppressed by
the AGC section
 The scan modulation is extracted from
the echo signal and applied to a servo
control to position antenna axis on
target.

Two servos are required.

When the antenna is on target, the
conical scan modulation is of zero
amplitude.
 DISADVANTAGES
Sequential lobing
1) Angle accuracy can be no better than the size of the antenna
beamwidth.
2) Variation in echo strength on a pulse-by-pulse basis changes the
signal level thereby reducing tracking accuracy
3) The antenna gain is less than the peak gain in beam axis
direction, reducing maximum range that can be measured
Conical scan
4) The antenna scan rate is limited by the scanning mechanism
(mechanical or electronic)
5) Sensitive to target modulation
6) Mechanical vibration and wear and tear due to rotating feed
 SIMULTANEOUS LOBING
With a single pulse angular coordinates
can be obtained
Maximum unambiguous range is limited
only by PRF
Monopulse is free of mechanical
vibrations
Errors due to amplitude fluctuation of
target echoes are greatly reduced
MONOPULSE
It is defined as one in which information
concerning the angular location of a
target is obtained by comparison of
signals received in two or more
simultaneous beams
A measurement is done based on a
single pulse -- MONOPULSE
Contd
But, many pulses are employed to
increase the accuracy
The accuracy of monopulse is not
affected by amplitude fluctuations of the
target echo.
Most popular monopulse is Amplitude
Comparison Monopulse
Amp comp
MONOPULSE
It compares the amplitudes of the
signals simultaneously received in
multiple squinted beams to determine
the angle.
The required squinted beams are
generated by two slightly displaced
feeds on a parabolic reflector.
While the difference pattern is for angle
measurement, the sum pattern is used
for ranging
Contd..
Signals received from the sum and
difference patterns are amplified
separately
They are combined in a phase sensitive
detector to produce the angle error
signal.
The sum signal is used to get the range
and sign of the angle.
Phase Sensitive
Detector
The system contains a phase sensitive
detector that compares two signals of the
same frequency.
It is a nonlinear device
The output indicates the direction of the
angle error relative to the boresight.
Though phase comparison is done, the
magnitude of the angle error signal is
determined by comparison of amplitude
signals.
 How does a 2D MONOPULSE work?
 SUM AND DIFFERENCE
PATTERNS
Azimuth
boresight
=W+X+Y+Z
AZ =(W+Y)-(X+Z)
X EL =(W+X)-(Y+Z)
W

EL

Elevation
boresight
AZ
W X

Monopulse
Y Z Y Z
comparator

Four horn
monopulse feed
HYBRID JUNCTIONS

Hybrid T junction

2 /4 3

/4
/4

4
Hybrid ring (RAT race junction) 1

3/4
MONOPULSE IN TWO ANGLE
COORDINATES
Transmitter

Hybrid
junctions
Signal
Receiver processor
Sum
channel
Antenna W+X Range
servo
Y+Z
Elevation
W+X difference
channel
Y+Z
W+Y
Azimuth
difference
channel
X+Z Azimuth drive

Elevation drive
Precautions
It is important that large relative phase
differences do not occur among the
three channels.
A typical value generally tolerable will be
250 for proper performance.
AGC is required to maintain a stable
closed loop system for angle tracking
and to insure that the angle error signal
is not affected by changes in the
received signal amplitude.
Practical issues
A cassegrain reflector is normally used
to place the microwave circuitry at the
back of the antenna.
Feed system can also be used for
support.
The greater the squint angle the better
will be the accuracy of the angle
measurement.
Trade of
But the on axis gain of the sum pattern
decreases if the squint angle increases

Simpler and more compact feed system

can be obtained by using higher order
waveguide modes to obtain independent
control of the sum and difference
patterns.
Phase Comparison
Monopulse
Phase Comparison
Monopulse
Two antenna beams are used to obtain
an angle measurement in one
coordinate
Here the two beams look in the same
direction whereas in earlier case they
looked at slightly different directions
Due to displacement of antennas, the
two received signals will have slightly
different phases but same amplitude.
 But the phase difference will be quite
small if the electrical spacing between
the antennas is small.
Angle information can also be extracted
in a phase comparison monopulse by
employing sum and difference patterns
and processing the signals similar to
amplitude comparison method.
 An analysis of the sum and difference
patterns for the phase comp monopulse
shows that a 900 phase shift has to be
introduced in the difference signal so
that output of the phase sensitive
detector is an error signal whose
amplitude is a function of the sine of the
angle of arrival from the target
measured w.r.t. the perpendicular to the
two antennas.
Limitations
Effect of grating lobes due to wide
separation between the antennas.

Ambiguities in the angle measurement.

To overcome these problems, a portion

of the parabolic reflectors is sliced off.
 AMPLITUDE AND PHASE
COMPARISON
MONOPULSE
A total of four hybrid junctions generate sum, azimuth and
elevation difference channel
Range information is extracted from the output of the sum
channel after amplitude detection
The angular error signal is obtained by comparing echo
amplitudes which actuates a servo mechanism to position
the antenna
The angle of arrival is determined by comparing the phase
difference between signals from two separate antennas
Antennas of phase comparison are not offset from the axis
COMPARISON OF
TRACKERS
In phase comparison four antennas are placed in awkward
direction and its side lobe levels are high
Sequential lobing suffers more losses with complex
antenna and feed system
Amplitude comparison has high SNR
It has higher precision in target tracking due to the
absence of target amplitude fluctuations
Angle error in two coordinates can be obtained by a single
pulse
Conical scan integrates no of pulses and then extracts
angle measurement but vice versa in monopulse
 SNR
The SNR from a monopulse radar is
greater than that from a conical scan
since it views target at the peak of sum
pattern.
SNR is 2 to 4 dB greater.
Accuracy
Due to high SNR, the range accuracy is
also high in monopulse.
The accuracy is not affected by
fluctuations in the amplitude of the echo
signal.
Both systems are degraded by the
wandering of the apparent position of
the target caused by glint.
Glint
It is angle noise or angle fluctuation
It occurs with complex targets that have
more than one scattering center within
the resolution cell of the radar
A single point scatterer such as sphere
does not show GLINT.
Aircrafts can cause GLINT
The greater the target in angle, the
greater is the glint error.
Complexity
Monopulse is more complex of the two.
Conical scan has to rotate or nutate the
beam at high speed.
The cassegrain is a popular choice for
monopulse
A space fed phased array can
implement monopulse by using a
multiple feed similar to cassegrain
Min No. of Pulses
A monopulse can perform on the basis of a
single pulse. For a phased array one pulse
is sufficient
A no. of pulses are usually integrated.
The conical scan tracker requires a
minimum no. of four pulses per revolution
of beam to extract an angle measurement
in two coordinates.
 The monopulse first makes its angle
measurement and then integrates a no.
of measurements to obtain the required
SNR.
The conical scan integrates a no. of
pulses first and then extracts the angle
measurement
Susceptibility to ECM

Conical scan tracker is more vulnerable

to spoofing that takes advantage of its
conical scan frequency
It can also suffer from deliberate
amplitude fluctuations.
A well designed monopulse is hard to
deceive
Application
Monopulse trackers should be used
when good angle accuracy is needed.

When high performance tracking is not

necessary, the conical scan tracker
might be used for its low cost.
What are the various methods of
acquisition before tracking a
target with Radar?
A tracking radar must first find and acquire
its target before it can operate as a tracker.
Therefore it is usually necessary for the
radar to scan an angular sector in which the
presence of the target is suspected. Most
tracking radars employ a narrow pencil-
beam antenna.
Examples of acquisition search
patterns.

(a) Trace of helical scanning beam; (b) Palmer scan; (c) spiral scan; (d)
raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.
limitations to tracking
accuracy
Main limitations to tracking accuracy of
radar are,
1. Amplitude fluctuations.
2. Angle fluctuations.
3. Receiver and servo noise
 Amplitude
fluctuations
A complex target such as an aircraft or a ship may be
considered as a number of independent scattering
elements.
The echo signal can be represented as the vector addition
of the contributions from the individual scatterers.
If the target aspect changes with respect to the radar-as
might occur because of motion of the target, or turbulence
in the case of aircraft targets-the relative phase and
amplitude relationships of the contributions from the
individual scatterers also change.
Consequently, the vector sum, and therefore the
amplitude change with changing target aspect.
 Angle fluctuations
Changes in the target aspect with
respect to the radar can cause the
apparent center of radar reflections to
wander from one point to another.
In general, the apparent center of
reflection might not correspond to the
target center.
 Receiver and servo
noise
Another limitation on tracking accuracy is the receiver noise
power.
The accuracy of the angle measurement is inversely
proportional to the square root of the signal-to-noise power
ratio. Since the signal-to-noise ratio is proportional to 1/R4
(from the radar equation), the angular error due to receiver
noise is proportional to the square of the target distance.
Servo noise is the hunting action of the tracking
servomechanism which results from backlash and
compliance in the gears, shafts, and structures of the
mount.
The magnitude of servo noise is essentially independent of
the target echo and will therefore be independent of range.
low angle tracking
NIKE AJAX GUIDANCE SYSTEM

First missile guidance

system to employ
monopulse technique

Developed in 1953
PATRIOT AIR DEFENCE
SYSTEM
 CONCLUSION
It is used if extreme accuracy is needed
Its improved interference immunity,
resolution, radar signal processing and
angular accuracy made it imperative in
all modern missile tracking/guidance
systems
QUERIES?

THANK YOU
 Question 1
How mono pulse tracking radar is free of
mechanical vibration?
In conventional radars, the antenna will be
continuously rotating while transmitting the
pulses. The echoes of several pulses which
will contain mechanical vibrations will be
integrated first before the data is processed .
But, in the case of monopulse, the data
processing of a single pulse is done first
( that is the name of monopulse). So, there is
no mechanical vibration for a single pulse.
 Question 2
How the accuracy of the mono pulse tracking radar
is not effected by the amplitude fluctuation of the
target echo?

The amplitude fluctuation of a target occurs

because the radar looks at the target differently for
different pulses due to its movement. But in the
case of a monopulse, the target information is
processed with a single pulse. Hence, the look
angle is not changed while the data is being
collected.
 Question 3
Why is the echo modulated
by conical scan frequency

It is due to rotation of
squinted beam
 Question 4
Why do we use several pulses
though single pulse is sufficient
in a monopulse ?

To increase accuracy
 Question 5
Why do we need AGC in a monopulse
system ?

AGC is required to maintain a stable

closed loop system for angle tracking
and to insure that the angle error signal
is not affected by changes in the
received signal amplitude.