CHAPTER 1 :

MACHINING PROCESSES
1.1 Fundamental of cutting process

1.2 Types of machining :

1.2.1 Turning
1.2.2 Shaping and Planning
1.2.3 Milling
1.2.4 Hole making process :
1.2.4.1 Drilling
1.2.4.2 Boring
1.2.4.3 Reaming
1.2.5 Grinding

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 1.1 FUNDAMENTAL OF CUTTING PROCESS
• Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut
away material to leave the desired part shape.

• The removal of the material from a work piece is in the form of chips.
Workpiece (ductile) – continuous chip – a process of extensive plastic deformation.
Workpiece (brittle) – small discontinuous chip – controlled fracture.

• As the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.

• Machining is used where tight tolerances on dimensions and finishes are required.
It is most frequently applied to shape metals.

• The term metal cutting is used when the material is metallic.

Types of machining process : Turning, milling, drilling etc. 2

• Machinablity is the ease of the material to be removed from metal by machine
processes such as turning, milling, drilling etc.

• A material with good machinability will produce :

- Small chips - Need low cutting forces
- Be capable of being machined quickly - Give a long tool life

Advantages of machining :
1) Variety of work materials
- Metals, plastics & composites can be cut by machining.
- Ceramic pose difficulties (bcoz of their high hardness and brittleness) – so use abrasive machining process.
2) Variety of part shapes and geometrical features
- Can be used to create any regular geometries (e.g. : flat plane, round hole & cylinder) and irregular
geometries (e.g.: screw thread).
3) Dimensional accuracy
- Produce dimensions to very close tolerance than most other processes.
4) Good surface finishes
- Capable of creating very smooth surface finish.

Disadvantages of machining :
1) Wasteful of material
- The chips that are generated in a machining operation are wasted materials.
2) Time consuming 3
- Takes more time to shape for a given part.
 1.2 TYPES OF MACHINING
• Types of machining : turning, shaping & planning, milling, drilling, etc.
•There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of
generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.
• To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work.
• This relative motion is achieved in most machining operations by means of a
primary motion called the speed and a secondary motion called the feed.

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Fig. : Turning machine
Fig. : Horizontal milling machine

5
Fig. : Vertical milling machine
 1.2.1 TURNING
Process Description
• In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from
a rotating cylindrical workpiece.

• The speed motion in turning is provided by rotating workpiece and the feed motion
is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the workpiece.

• Types of turning operations : taper turning, boring, necking, facing, etc. -

depending on direction of tool fed and rotating work piece.

Turning
Tool : Single point
Workpiece : Cylindrical part

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Materials
• All metals, some plastics and ceramics.

Process variations
• The basic turning machine is called a lathe (manual/automatic).

• Manually operated machines include :

Bench lathes - can machine non-standard shape parts.
Turret lathes - limited to standard stock material.

• Automatic bar machines : Fully or semi-automated. Follow operations activated by

mechanisms on the machine.

• Lathe machines have some common elements. All lathes :

- Have a basic structure.
- Use a cutting tool.
- Provide a way to support and move the tool.
- Hold and rotate the work.

• CNC machines : Movement and control of tool, head stock and saddle are
performed by a computer program via stepper motors.

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 Lathe
The basic structure of lathe involve four main parts :
• Bed – As the foundation of the machine, must resist vibration and deflection.
• Head stock - Contain the drive or power element, remains fixed, always on the left end (facing the lathe) of
the bed.
• Tailstock – Adjustable along the length of the bed, on the opposite end of the bed from the headstock.
• Tool holding services – Depends on types of lathes.

8
Fig. : General view of a typical lathe, showing various major components.
 CNC lathe

Fig. : (a) A computer-numerical-control lathe, with two turrets; these machines have
higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order to take advantage of
advanced cutting tools with enhanced properties; (b) a typical turret equipped with ten
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cutting tools, some of which are powered.
 Turning operations
(a) Facing
The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on the
end.

(b) Taper turning

Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool is fed at an
angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.

(c) Contour turning

Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of rotation as in turning,
the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a contoured form in the
turned part.

(d) Form turning

In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape that is imparted to the
work by plunging the tool radially into the work.

(e) Chamfering
The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the cylinder, forming
what is called a “chamfer.”

(f) Cutoff
The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to cut off the
end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting. 10
g) Threading
A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating workpart in a direction
parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads in the cylinder.

(h) Boring
A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside diameter of an
existing hole in the part.

(i) Drilling
Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along its axis.
Reaming can be performed in a similar way.

(j) Knurling
This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material. Instead, it is a
metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross- hatched pattern in the work surface.

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Fig. : Machining operations other than turning that are performed on a lathe : (a) Facing, (b) Taper
turning, (c) Contour turning, (d) Form turning, (e) Chamfering, (f) Cutoff, (g) Threading, (h) Boring,
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(i) Drilling and (j) Knurling.
Economic considerations
• Economical quantities are 1000+ for automatic machines. Production volumes of
100000+ are common. Manual and CNC machining commonly used for small
production runs, but can also be economic for one-offs.

• Tooling costs are moderate to high for automatic machines, low for manual.

• Equipment costs are high for automatic/CNC machines. Moderate for manual
machining.

• Direct labor costs are high for manual machining, low to moderate for
automatic/CNC machining.

• Finishing costs are low. Only cleaning and deburring required.

Typical applications
• Any component with rotational symmetrical elements requiring close tolerances.
• Non-standard shapes requiring secondary operations.
• Shafts.
• Screws and fasteners.
• Transmission components.
• Engine parts.
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Quality issues
Problem Causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles;
machine tool lacks stiffness; worn bearings and
machine components; cutting parameters too high.
Excessive tool wear Cutting parameter too high; improper tool material;
ineffective cutting fluid; improper tool angles.

Rough surface finish Built-up edge on tool; feed too high; tool too sharp;
chipped or worn; vibration and chatter.

Dimensional variability Lack of stiffness; excessive temperature rise; tool wear.

Tool chatter Lack of stiffness; work piece not supported rigidly;

excessive tool overhang.

Turning operation
• Initial
Perform one or more roughness cut ( high feed rates) – fewer cutting and less time.

• Finishing cut 14
Lower feed and depth of cut – to give good surface finish.
 Turning parameters

Workpiece Depth of cut, d, DOC

Chip

Fig. : (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation, showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. Cutting speed is
the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip.
(b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed force (in the
direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being
machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.

Important parameters :
- Workpiece material - Feedrate, f
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- Tool material - Depth of cut, d, DOC
Factors/parameters influence on metal cutting :
•Cutting speed,V
too high and too low cutting speed cause bad surface finish, high speed decrease
tool life (excessive tool wear).

•Cutting tool geometry

insuitable tool geometry cause rough surface, dull tool - high friction – workpiece
tendency to burnt .

•Cutting tool material

high hardness of tool produce better cutting process (less force required) and
increase tool life.

•Feed rate,f
high feed rate produce bad surface finish (usually used for rough machining) and
affect to excessive tool wear.

•Depth of cut,d
high depth of cut produce bad surface finish and excessive tool wear. High depth
16 of
cut required high cutting force.
• Cutting fluid
insufficient cutting fluid cause higher friction - temperature rise (affect workpiece
material properties), excessive tool wear.

•Rake angle
rake angle – high rake angle, low cutting force required – better cutting process.

•Relief angle
relief angle avoid rubbing on machined surface – no friction, good surface finish.

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 Turning calculation

DOC = (Do - Df)/2

Davg = (Do + Df)/2

Cutting time, t = l/fN

where l = length of travel

Metal Removal Rate, MRR = πDavgdfN

Cutting speed, V = πDN - depend on D

(during process, D decrease, so cutting speed
decrease

d - depth of cut (DOC)

f - feed (distance travel in 1 revolution)
D0 - initial diameter
Df - final diameter
Force involved :
Fc - cutting force (force that supplies energy for cutting can be calculate)
Ft - feed force 18
Fr - radial force (difficult to calculate – many factor)
 1.2.2 SHAPING & PLANNING
• Simplest of all machining processes.

• Shaping and planning are similar operations, both involving the use of a single-point cutting
tool moved linearly relative to the workpiece.

Process description
• The removal of material by chip processes using single-point cutting tools that move in a
straight line parallel to the work piece surface with either the work piece reciprocating, as in
planning, or the tool reciprocating, as in shaping.

Materials
• All metals.
Fig. : Components of a shaper
Process variations
• Wide range of cutting tool geometries and tool
material available.
• Machine for shaping :
Horizontal shaping and vertical shaping.
• Machine for planning :
Double housing planer and open side planer.

Fig. : Components of a planer 19

Economic considerations
• Production rates ranging 1-50/h.

• Material utilization is poor. Large quantities of chips are generated, which can be
recycled.

• Flexibility is high. Little dedicated tooling and setup times are generally short.

Typical applications
• Machine tool beds.
• Large castings.
• Die-blocks.
• Key-seats, slots and notches.
• Large gear teeth.

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 1.2.3 MILLING
Process Description
• The removal of material by chip processes using multiple-point cutting tools of
various shapes to generate flat surfaces or profiles on a work piece of regular or
irregular section (MRR higher).

• The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation.

• The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter.

Milling
Tool : Multiple point
Workpiece : Irregular @ regular part

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 Types of milling
(1) Peripheral milling (slab milling), (2) Face milling, (3) End milling,
(4) Profile milling and (5) Helical milling.
** 1, 2 and 3 are the most common types.

1) Peripheral milling (slab milling)

• The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the work piece surface to be machined.
• The milled surface is generated by teeth located on the periphery of the cuter body.
• Cutter – straight or helical (helical gives smoother operation and reducing tool forces

2) Face milling
• Cutter is mounted on a spindle having a axis of rotation perpendicular to the work piece surface.
• The milled surface results from the action of cutting edges located on the periphery face of cutter.
• A face milling cutter leaves feed marks on the machined surface. 22
• Surface roughness of the work piece depends on insert corner geometry and feed per tooth.
3) End milling
• The cutter rotates on an axis perpendicular to the work piece.
• Cutting teeth are located on both the end face of the cutter and the periphery of the cutter
body.

4) Profile milling
• The least complex form of milling.
• Mainly used for finishing operations and operations where the CAM programmer wants to
have absolute control of the tool.

5) Helical milling
• An alternative to drilling.
• Able to maintain precise control at high feed rates in machining holes.
• Advantages over drilling operation :
* Reduce chip ejection problem.
* Various hole sizes – save on tool change time.
* Cored holes – able to rounding and straightening holes formed through casting.
* Machining treads – more easily tread a shallow hole.

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Materials
• All metals, some plastics and ceramics.

Process variations
• Extensive range of cutting tool geometries and tool materials are available.

• Horizontal milling : axis of cutter rotation is parallel to surface of work piece.

Includes slab milling, from milling, slotting, gang milling and slitting. Can be either up-
cut or down-cut milling (please refer to the milling operations for more details).

• Vertical milling : axis of cutter rotation is perpendicular to surface of work piece.

Includes face milling, slotting, dovetail and woodruff milling.

• CNC machines : movement and control of tool, headstock and bed are performed
by a computer program via stepper motors.

• Please refer to the next page for more details on types of milling machine.

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 Milling machines

Fig. : (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-

type milling machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle
column-and-knee-type milling machine. 25
Types of milling machine

1. Column and knee type

2. Bed type
3. Planer type
4. Tracer Mill
5. CNC Milling
1) Column and Knee
- Column : supports the spindle.
- Knee : supports the work table hine tool for milling.
-The worktable can be moved in the x-direction, the saddle can be moved in the y-
direction and the knee can be moved vertically to achieve the z-movement.

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2) Bed Type
- Designed for high production.
- Greater rigidity than knee-and-column machines, permitting heavier feed rates
and depths of cut needed for high material removal rates.
- worktable is mounted directly to the bed.

Fig. : Simplex bed-type milling machine

horizontal spindle.

3) Planer Type
- Planer type mills are the largest milling machines.
-Their general appearance and construction are those of a large planer, the
difference is that milling is performed instead of planning.
- One or more milling heads are substituted for the single-point cutting tools used on
planers 27
4) Tracer Mill
- Tracer mills have been used for creating shapes that cannot easily be generated by
a simple feeding action of the work part against the milling cutter, e.g. : machining of
molds and dies.
- In recent years, many of the applications previously accomplished on tracer mills
have been taken over by computer numerical control (CNC) milling machines.

5) CNC Milling
- Machines in which the cutter path is controlled by data.

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Milling operations

Conventional milling (up milling)

• Most common method.
• Maximum chip thickness at the end of the cut.
• Cutting process not depend on surface characteristics
and contamination (not effect tool life).
• Smooth process.
• Tend to chatter the tools, lifted work piece
(if not properly clamp).

Climb milling (down milling)

• Cutting start at the surface of work piece
(depending on surface characteristics).
• Not suite for hot worked metal, forging and casting
– hard and abrasive – cause excessive
wear and damage to cutter teeth.
• Use in CNC machined tools.
• Cutting force hold the work piece.

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Conventional milling Climb milling
 Other types of milling operations :

Fig. : Cutters for (a) straddle

milling; (b) form milling; (c) Table : Approximate range of recommended
cutting speeds for milling operations.
slotting; and (d) slitting
operations.

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Economic considerations
• Production volumes are usually low. Can be used for one-offs.

• Tooling costs are moderate to high depending on degree of automation (tool

carousels, mechanized tool loading, automatic fixturing, etc.).

• Equipment costs are moderate to high.

• Direct labor costs are moderate to high. Skilled labor required.

• Finishing costs are low. Cleaning and deburring required.

Typical applications
• Any standard or non-standard shapes requiring secondary operations.
• Aircraft wings spars.
• Engine blocks.
• Pump components.
• Gears.

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Quality issues
Problem Causes
Tool breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper tool angles; cutting parameters too high.

Excessive tool wear Cutting parameter too high; improper tool material; improper tool angles; improper cutting
fluid.
Rough surface finish Feed too high; spindle speed too low; too few teeth on cutter; tool chipped or worn; built-up
edge; vibration and chatter.
Tolerances too broad Lack of spindle stiffness; excessive temperature rise; dull tool; chips clogging cutter.

Work piece surface burnished Dull tool; depth of cut too low; radial relief angle too small.

Back striking Dull cutting tools; cutter spindle tilt; negative tool angles.

Chatter marks Insufficient stiffness of system; external vibrations; feed’ depth and width of cut too large.

Burr formation Dull cutting edges or too much honing; incorrect angle of entry or exit; feed and depth of
cut too high; incorrect insert geometry.
Breakout Lead angle too low; incorrect cutting edge geometry; incorrect angle of entry or eit; feed
and depth of cut too high.

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Milling parameters

tc = 2fd / D f = v / Nn t = (l – lc) / v

tc = underformed chip thickness v = linear speed l = length of workpiece

f = feed per tooth n = number of teeth lc = extent of the cutter
d = depth of cut
V = πDN first contact
MRR = lwd / t
= lwv V = cutting speed
D = cutter diameter
w = width of the cut N = rotational speed 33
 1.2.4 HOLE MAKING PROCESS :
1.2.4.1 DRILLING
Process Description
• The removal of material by chip processes using rotating tools (the tool is known
as drill) of various types with two or more cutting edges to produce cylindrical holes
(a.k.a. round holes) in a workpart.

• The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpart to form
the round hole.

Materials
• All metals, some plastics and ceramics.

Process variations
• Wide range of cutting tool materials are available. Titanium nitride coatings are used
to increase tool life.

• Drilling can also be performed on lathes, milling machines and machining centers.
34
• Spot facing, counterboring and countersinking are related drilling processes.
Drilling operations
• The rotating drill feeds into the stationary work piece to form
hole whose diameter is equal to the drill diameter.

• Usually the hole diameter produced are slightly larger than the
drill diameter.

• The amount of oversize depends on the quality of the drill and

equipment used and operator experiences.

• Drilled holes may be subjected to subsequent operations for

better surface and dimensional accuracy.

•The chip that are produced within the workpiece have to move in
the direction opposite to the axial movement of the drill.

•Two spiral grooves run the length of the drill, chip produced are
guided upward through these grooves. Grooves also serves as
passageways to enable the cutting fluid to reach the cutting
edge. Figure :Chip
and cutting fluid
•Chip disposal and the effectiveness of cutting fluids can present
significant difficulties in drilling. 35
 Fig. : Two common types of drills: (a)
Chisel-point drill. The function of the
pair of margins is to provide a bearing
surface for the drill against walls of the
hole as it penetrates into the workpiece.
Drills with four margins (double-
margin) are available for improved drill
guidance and accuracy. Drills with
chip-breaker features are also available.
(b) Crankshaft drills. These drills have
good centering ability, and because
chips tend to break up easily, they are
suitable for producing deep holes.

36
Fig. : Various types of drills and drilling operations.
 Types of drilling operations

Fig. : Machining operations related to

drilling; (a) reaming, (b) tapping, (c)
counterboring, (d) countersinking, (e)
centerdrilling and (f) spot facing.

a) Reaming
It is used to slightly enlarge a hole to provide a better tolerance on its diameter
and to improve its surface finish. The tool is called a reamer and it usually has
straight flutes.

b) Tapping
It is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal screw threads in an 37
existing hole.
c) Counterboring
It provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter follows a smaller
diameter partially into the hole. A counterbored hole is used to seat bolt heads
into a hole so the heads do no protrude above the surface.

d) Countersinking
This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-shaped
for flat head screws and bolts.

e) Centering (a.k.a. centerdrilling)

This operation drills a starting hole to accurately establish its location for
subsequent drilling. The tool is called a centerdrill.

38
Economic considerations
• Production volumes are usually low to moderate. Can be used for one-offs.

• Production costs are significantly reduced with multiple spindle machines when
used on large production runs.

• Tooling costs are low.

• Equipment costs are low to moderate Low operator skill required.

• Finishing costs are low. Cleaning and deburring required.

Typical applications
• Any component requiring cylindrical holes.
• Engine blocks.
• Pump components.
• Machine components.

39
Quality issues
• The chip generation is hidden and invisible.

• There is limited space for chip removal, along the flutes.

• There is considerable friction between the tool, chip and work piece creating a lot of
heat.

• The heat flow from the drill surface is a problem.

• The cutting speed is variable, from ) at the centre to a maximum at the outer edge.

• Quality is maintained by matching the right drill material and geometry to the material
being drilled.

• So, keep friction low and the drill cool, keep the cutting edge sharp.

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 1.2.4.2 BORING
Process description
• Machining operation performed on the inside of a hollow workpiece of in a hole made
previously by drilling or other processes.
• Boring is used to reduce the external diameter of a circular form or increase the internal
diameter.
• It gives very accurate internal hole drilling.
• Deflection of the boring bar can cause dimensional inaccuracy.
• High stiffness of the boring bar minimizes deflection, vibration, and chatter (such as
tungsten carbide material or built-in damping devices).

Design considerations
• Use through holes instead of blind holes if possible
• The greater the length-to-bore diameter ratio, the more difficult it is to hold dimensions
because of deflections of the boring bar due to cutting forces
• Interrupted internal surfaces should be avoided.

Applications
• Piston hole in an engine block.
• Heat exchanger tube sheet. 41
 1.2.4.3 REAMING
Process description
• The removal of small amounts of material by chip processes using tools of various types with
several cutting edges to improve the accuracy, roundness and surface finish of existing
cylindrical holes in a workpiece.

• The tool or the work can rotate relative to each other.

Functions of reaming :
• Make a hole more dimensionally accurate.
• Improve the surface finish.
• The depth of cut (DOC) in reaming is very small.
• Increase the diameter of hole.

Materials
• All metals.
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Process variations
• No special machines are used for reaming.
• Reaming can be performed on drilling machines, lathes, milling machines or by hand.
• Basic reamer types :
Hand (straight and tapered), machine (rose and fluted), shell, expansion, adjustable and indexible
insert reamers.

Combination drills and reamers are also available.

The most accurate holes are produced by the following sequence of

operations :
Centre drilling Drilling Boring Reaming

Fig. : Terminology for a helical reamer. 43

Economic considerations
• Production volumes usually low to moderate.

• Can be used for one-offs.

• Tooling costs are low.

• Equipment costs are low.

• Direct labor costs are low to moderate. Low operator skill required.

• Finishing costs are low. Cleaning and deburring required.

Applications
• Any component requiring accurate, cylindrical or tapered holes with good surface finish,
either blind or through after a primary hole making operation, typically drilling.

Quality issues
• Proper maintenance and reconditioning of reamers is required to maintain correct hole
size and surface finish requirements. TO work efficiently, a reamer must have all its teeth
cutting.

• Selection of appropriate reamer geometry, coolant/lubricant (if required), size of hole,

feed rate and cutting speed with respect to material to be machined is important.
44
 1.2.5 GRINDING
Process description
• The removal of small layer’s material by the action of an abrasive spinning
wheel on a rotating or reciprocating workpiece.

• Individual abrasive grain is used as the cutting tool.

Major differences between grain and single-point

cutting tool action :

i. The individual abrasive grains have irregular

shapes and are spaced randomly along the
periphery of the wheel
ii. The average rake angle of the grains is highly
negative. Consequently, grinding chips undergo
much larger deformation than they do in other
cutting processes.
iii. The radial positions of the grains vary.
iv. Cutting speeds are very high.

Materials
• All hard materials. Not suitable for soft or flexible
45
materials.
Abrasive material
General properties of an abrasive material used in grinding wheels include
– high hardness,
– wear resistance,
– toughness, and
– friability (refers to the capacity of the abrasive material to fracture when the cutting edge of the
grain becomes dull, thereby exposing a new sharp edge)

Abrasive grain size

• The grain size of the abrasive particle is an important parameter in determining surface
finish and material removal rate.
• Small grit sizes produce better finishes, while larger grain sizes permit larger material
removal rates.
• The selection of grit size also depends to some extent on the type of work material.
Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to cut effectively, while softer materials
require larger grit sizes.
• Grain sizes used in grinding wheels typically range between 8 and 250. Grit size 8 is very
coarse and size 250 is very fine. Finer grit sizes are used for lapping and superfinishing

Types of grinding fluid

 Grinding oils
 Emulsified oils

- Mixtures of oil in water are most commonly recommended as grinding fluids.

- These are usually mixed with higher concentrations than emulsified oils used as
conventional cutting fluids. In this way, the friction reduction mechanism is emphasized. 46
Grinding operation and machines
- Depend on part shape and size, ease of fixturing and production rate.

Basic type of grinding operation :

1) Surface grinding
2) Cylindrical grinding
3) Internal grinding

1) Surface grinding
- Grinding flat surface.
- Workpiece is secured on a magnetic chuck attached to worktable.
- Straight wheel is mounted on the horizontal spindle of the grinder.
- Wheel is moved radially into the workpiece.

47
 2) Cylindrical grinding
- External cylindrical surfaces and shoulders of the workpiece are ground.
- Rotating cylindrical workpiece helt between center or in a chuck.

Fig. : Examples of
various cylindrical
grinding operations.
(a) Transverse
grinding, (b) Plunge
grinding and (c) Profile
grinding.

3) Internal grinding
- Small wheel is used to grind the inside diameter of the part.
- Workpiece is held in a rotating chuck and the wheel rotated.

48
Fig. : Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.
Quality issues
 To optimize surface finish :
 Select a small grit size and dense (thick) wheel structure.
 Use higher wheel speeds (v), and lower work speeds (v).
 Smaller depths of cut (d) and larger wheel diameters (D).

 To maximize material removal rate :

 Select a large grit size.
 More open wheel structure.
 Vitrified bond.

To minimize heat damage, cracking and warping of the work surface :
 Maintain the sharpness of the wheel.
 Dress the wheel frequently.
 Use lighter depths of cut.
 Lower wheel speeds.
 Faster work speeds.
49