Destructive Examination &

Testing
 Destructive Examination

Destructive Examination renders the weld

or material unfit for further service.
 Common methods used in
Destructive Examination
Bend testing
Tensile testing
Impact testing
Hardness testing
Chemical analysis
Hydrostatic testing to destruction
Peel testing
Spark testing
 Bend Testing

Bend test samples are referred to as

Test Coupons
The most common bend tests are
Guided face and root bend testing
Guided side bend testing
Longitudinal root and side bend testing
Fillet weld bend testing
Unguided bend testing
Bend Testing Sample Removal
Bend Testing Sample Preparation
Face Bend Testing
Root Bend Testing
Side Bend Testing
Longitudinal Face Bend Testing
Longitudinal Root Bend Testing
Fillet Bend Testing
Pipe Fillet Bend Testing
 Tensile Strength Testing
Tensile is a test in which a prepared
sample is pulled until the sample breaks.
Test Measurements are recorded in PSI
(Pounds per Square Inch) E7018 = 70,000 PSI Tensile
Test samples called Tensile Bolts can
reveal a welds Tensile strength, Elastic
limit, Yield point, and Ductility.
 Tensile Strength Testing
The Elastic Limit of metal is the stress (load)
it can withstand and still return to the original
length after the load is released.
Yield Strength occurs when the test sample
stretches however will not return to its
original length.
Ductility is the ability of a metal to stretch or
elongate before it breaks.
Tensile Testing Strength Graph
 Impact Testing
An Impact tester uses a heavy pendulum
that is able to measure the amount of force
required to shear or fracture a test sample
taken from welds Heat Affected Zone
(HAZ)
Impact testing may be performed using
either the Izod or Charpy method. (Both
methods are similar)
 Impact Testing
A Charpy or Izod test measures the welds
ability to withstand an Impact force.
Low Charpy test readings indicate brittle
weld metal
Higher Charpy readings indicate the
samples toughness.
 Hardness testing
Hardness may be defined as the
resistance to permanent indentation.
Three common hardness measuring
tests are
Rockwell test
Scleroscope test
Brinell
Microhardness test
 Hardness testing
The Rockwell testing machine operates
somewhat like a press, using a indenter to
penetrate the surface of the test sample.

The depth of the indentation determines the

materials hardness on a scale of 0-100
 Hardness testing
The Sceleroscpoe testing machine measures
the amount bounce that a diamond tip
hammer rebounds off the test sample after
being dropped.
The Brinell method presses the indenter
into a sample for a given period of time.
The ability for the sample to resist
indentation determines hardness.
 Hardness testing
Microhardness testers allow you to measure
a materials hardness while leaving the least
amount of damage possible on the metals
surface.
After the indenter is used a powerful
microscope is used to determine the the
amount of indentation into the components
surface.
 Chemical Analysis

Chemical analysis is used in metallurgical

laboratories to determine the metals grain
and crystalline structures.
Samples are then place under a high power
microscope to view the results.
This is referred to as Metalography
 Hydrostatic Testing to Destruction

Pressure testing or leak testing can be

performed with either gasses or liquids.
When this pressure exceeds the limitations
of the structures design it will rupture under
force.
This rupture will allow engineers to
understand the welds weakest areas.
 Peel testing

Lap joints may be tested to destruction using

a Peel test.
Peel testing is most commonly used to check
the strength of resistance spot welds or stud
weld
Spot weld peel tests are considered
successful when the spot weld nugget is torn
out of the test sample pieces in tact.
 Spark Testing
The shape and
characteristic of sparks
created when metal is
ground will help
determine its
properties.
IE: carbon steel , mild
steel.
 Quiz time

Which of the following is a destructive

test ?
A: magnet particle
B: tensile testing
C: die penetrate testing
D: ultrasonic testing
 Quiz time
The _______ type hardness test leaves the least
amount of damage on the metals surface.

A: Rockwell
B: Brinell
C: Scleroscope
D: Microhardness
 Quiz time
When a metal stretches, but dose not break under a
certain load, this point is called the _________
Point.

A: yield
B: tensile
C: stretch
D: ultimate strength
 Quiz time
Ductility is the ability of a metal to ________
before it breaks.

A: Bend
B: Stretch or elongate
C: Be forged
D: Be indented
 Quiz time
A Charpy test measures a welds ability to
withstand _________ force.

A: Impact
B: Bending
C: Penetrating
D: Stretching
 Quiz time
Hardness may be defined as the resistance to
__________?

Indentation
 Modern Welding
York County School of Technology
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.7 A
unidirectional
force is applied to
a specimen in the
tensile test by
means of the
moveable
crosshead. The
cross-head
movement can be
performed using
screws or a
hydraulic
mechanism
 Section 6.2
Terminology for Mechanical Properties
Stress - Force or load per unit area of cross-section over
which the force or load is acting.
Strain - Elongation change in dimension per unit length.
Youngs modulus - The slope of the linear part of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region, same as
modulus of elasticity.
Shear modulus (G) - The slope of the linear part of the
shear stress-shear strain curve.
Viscosity () - Measure of resistance to flow, defined as
the ratio of shear stress to shear strain rate (units Poise
or Pa-s).
Thixotropic behavior - Materials that show shear
thinning and also an apparent viscosity that at a constant rate
of shear decreases with time.
 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.10 The stress-strain curve for an aluminum

alloy from Table 6-1
 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.12 Localized deformation of a ductile material

during a tensile test produces a necked region. The
micrograph shows necked region in a fractured sample
 Section 6.8
Strain Rate Effects and Impact
Behavior
Impact test - Measures the ability of a material to absorb
the sudden application of a load without breaking.
Impact energy - The energy required to fracture a
standard specimen when the load is applied suddenly.
Impact toughness - Energy absorbed by a material,
usually notched, during fracture, under the conditions of
impact test.
Fracture toughness - The resistance of a material to
failure in the presence of a flaw.
 Section 6.7
Hardness of Materials
Hardness test - Measures the resistance of a material to
penetration by a sharp object.
Macrohardness - Overall bulk hardness of materials
measured using loads >2 N.
Microhardness Hardness of materials typically measured
using loads less than 2 N using such test as Knoop
(HK).
Nano-hardness - Hardness of materials measured at 1
10 nm length scale using extremely small (~100 N)
forces.
 Section 6.9
Properties Obtained from the Impact
Test
Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) - The
temperature below which a material behaves in a brittle
manner in an impact test.
Notch sensitivity - Measures the effect of a notch,
scratch, or other imperfection on a materials properties,
such as toughness or fatigue life.
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

polymer
from a series of
Izod impact tests
for a super-tough
nylon thermoplastic
Figure 6.27 Results
 Mechanical Properties
Outline

Stress-Strain Relationships
Tensile Properties
Compression Properties
Bending and Testing of Brittle Materials
Shear Properties
Hardness
Hardness Tests
Hardness of Materials
Effects of Temperature
Other Properties
Fluid
Viscoelasticity
 Mechanical Properties
Mechanical properties predict behaviour encountered in service
Properties include
elastic modulus
ductility
hardness
strength
In DESIGN material needs to withstand stress
In PRODUCTION material needs to yield to stress
Production Processes generate stresses which deform material
Hard Materials are difficult to deform
Ductile Materials are easier to deform
 StressStrain Relationships
Three types of static stresses to which materials
can be subjected:
1. Tensile - tend to stretch the material
2. Compressive - tend to squeeze it
3. Shear - tend to cause adjacent portions of material to
slide against each other
Stressstrain curve - basic relationship that
describes mechanical properties for all three types
Tensile Test

Most common test for

studying stressstrain
relationship, especially
metals
In the test, a force pulls
the material, elongating it
and reducing
Tensile its diameter
test: (a) tensile force applied in (1) and (2) resulting
elongation of material
ASTM (American
Society for Testing and
Materials) specifies
preparation of test
specimen

Tensile test: (b) typical test specimen

Tensile test: (c) setup of the tensile test
Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load;
(2) uniform elongation and reduction of cross sectional area;
(3) continued elongation, maximum load reached; (4) necking
begins, load begins to decrease; and (5) fracture. If pieces are
put back together as in (6), final length can be measured
 Engineering Stress
Defined as force divided by original area:
F
e
Ao
where e = engineering stress, F = applied force, and Ao
= original area of test specimen
 Engineering Strain
Defined at any point in the test as
L Lo
e
Lo
where e = engineering strain; L = length at any point
during elongation; and Lo = original gage length
Typical engineering stressstrain plot
in a tensile test of a metal
 Two Regions of StressStrain
Curve
The two regions indicate two distinct forms
of behavior:
1. Elastic region prior to yielding of the
material
2. Plastic region after yielding of the material
 Elastic Region in StressStrain
Curve
Relationship between stress and strain is linear
Material returns to its original length when stress is
removed

Hooke's Law: e = E e

where E = modulus of elasticity

E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
Its value differs for different materials
Yield Point in StressStrain Curve

As stress increases, a point in the linear

relationship is finally reached when the
material begins to yield
Yield point Y can be identified by the change in
slope at the upper end of the linear region
Y = a strength property
Other names for yield point = yield strength,
yield stress, and elastic limit
 Plastic Region in StressStrain
Curve
Yield point marks the beginning of plastic
deformation
The stress-strain relationship is no longer
guided by Hooke's Law
As load is increased beyond Y, elongation
proceeds at a much faster rate than before,
causing the slope of the curve to change
dramatically
 Tensile Strength in StressStrain
Curve
Elongation is accompanied by a uniform reduction
in crosssectional area, consistent with
maintaining constant volume
Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum
value, and engineering stress at this point is called
the tensileFstrength TS or ultimate tensile strength
max
Ao
TS =
 Ductility in Tensile Test
Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
Lf Lo
EL
Lo

where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at fracture;

and Lo = original specimen length
Lf is measured as the distance between gage marks after
two pieces of specimen are put back together
 True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous
area into applied load
F

A

where = true stress; F = force; and A = actual

(instantaneous) area resisting the load
 True Strain
Provides a more realistic assessment of
"instantaneous" elongation per unit length
L
dL L
ln
L L
o
Lo
If previous engineering stressstrain curve were
plotted using true stress and strain values

True stressstrain curve for the previous engineering

stressstrain plot
Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain
Curve
Note that true stress increases continuously
in the plastic region until necking
In the engineering stressstrain curve, the
significance of this was lost because stress was
based on an incorrect area value
What it means is that the metal is becoming
stronger as strain increases
This is the property called strain hardening
When the plastic region of the true stressstrain curve
is plotted on a loglog scale, it becomes linear

Figure 3.5 True stressstrain curve plotted on

loglog scale
 Flow Curve
Because it is a straight line in a log-log plot, the
relationship between true stress and true strain in the
plastic region is

K n

where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening

exponent
 Categories of Stress-Strain
Relationship
1. Perfectly elastic
2. Elastic and perfectly plastic
3. Elastic and strain hardening
 Perfectly Elastic

Behavior is defined
completely by modulus
of elasticity E
It fractures rather than
yielding to plastic flow
Brittle materials:
ceramics, many cast
irons, and thermosetting
polymers
Three categories of stressstrain relationship: (a) perfectly
elastic
 Elastic and Perfectly Plastic
Stiffness defined by E
Once Y reached, deforms
plastically at same stress
level
Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0
Metals behave like this
when heated to sufficiently
high temperatures (above
recrystallization)
Three categories of stressstrain relationship:
(b) elastic and perfectly plastic
 Elastic and Strain Hardening
Hooke's Law in elastic
region, yields at Y
Flow curve: K > Y, n > 0
Most ductile metals
behave this way when
cold worked

Three categories of stressstrain relationship:

(c) elastic and strain hardening
Compression Test

Applies a load that

squeezes the ends of
a cylindrical
specimen between
Compression test:
two(a)platens
compression force applied to
test piece in (1) and (2) resulting
change in height
Figure 3.7 Compression test: (b) setup for the test
with size of test specimen exaggerated
 Engineering Stress in
Compression
As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced and
crosssectional area is increased
F
e
Ao

where Ao = original area of the specimen

 Engineering Strain in
Compression
Engineering strain is defined
h ho
e
ho

Since height is reduced during compression, value of e is

negative (the negative sign is usually ignored when
expressing compression strain)
 Shape of plastic
region is different
from tensile test
because crosssection
increases
Calculated value of
engineering stress is
higher
Typical engineering stressstrain curve for a compression test
 Tensile Test vs. Compression Test
Although differences exist between engineering
stressstrain curves in tension and compression, the
true stressstrain relationships are nearly identical
Since tensile test results are more common, flow
curve values (K and n) from tensile test data can be
applied to compression operations
When using tensile K and n data for compression,
ignore necking, which is a phenomenon peculiar to
straining induced by tensile stresses
 Testing of Brittle Materials

Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics)

possess elasticity but little or no plasticity
Often tested by a bending test (also called
flexure test)
Specimen of rectangular crosssection is
positioned between two supports, and a load is
applied at its center
Bending of a rectangular crosssection results in both tensile and
compressive stresses in the material: (1) initial loading; (2) highly
stressed and strained specimen; and (3) bent part
 Testing of Brittle Materials

Brittle materials do not flex

They deform elastically until fracture
Failure occurs because tensile strength of outer
fibers of specimen are exceeded
Failure type: cleavage - common with ceramics
and metals at low temperatures, in which
separation rather than slip occurs along certain
crystallographic planes
 Transverse Rupture Strength
The strength value derived from the bending test:
1.5FL
TRS
bt 2

where TRS = transverse rupture strength; F =

applied load at fracture; L = length of specimen
between supports; and b and t are dimensions of
cross-section
 Shear Properties
Application of stresses in opposite
directions on either side of a thin element

Shear (a) stress and (b) strain

 Shear Stress and Strain
F
Shear stress defined as
A
where F = applied force; and A = area over which deflection occurs.

Shear strain defined as

b

where = deflection element; and b = distance over which

deflection occurs
Typical shear stressstrain curve from a torsion test
 Shear Elastic StressStrain
Relationship
In the elastic region, the relationship is defined as
G

where G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of

elasticity
For most materials, G 0.4E, where E = elastic
modulus
 Shear Plastic StressStrain
Relationship
Relationship similar to flow curve
Shear stress at fracture = shear strength S
Shear strength can be estimated from tensile
strength: S 0.7(TS)
Since crosssectional area of test specimen
in torsion test does not change as in tensile
and compression, engineering stressstrain
curve for shear true stressstrain curve
 Hardness

Resistance to permanent indentation

Good hardness generally means material is
resistant to scratching and wear
Most tooling used in manufacturing must be
hard for scratch and wear resistance
 Hardness Tests
Commonly used for assessing material properties
because they are quick and convenient
Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to
differences in hardness among different materials
Most wellknown hardness tests are Brinell and
Rockwell
Other test methods are also available, such as
Vickers, Knoop, Scleroscope, and durometer
 Brinell Hardness

Widely used for

testing metals and
nonmetals of low to
medium hardness
A hard ball is
pressed into
specimen surface
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg Hardness testing methods: (a) Brinell
 Brinell Hardness Number

Load divided into indentation area = Brinell

Hardness Number (BHN)
2F
HB
Db (Db Db2 Di2 )

where HB = Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), F =

indentation load, kg; Db = diameter of ball, mm,
and Di = diameter of indentation, mm
 Rockwell Hardness Test
Another widely used test
A cone shaped indenter is pressed into specimen
using a minor load of 10 kg, thus seating indenter
in material
Then, a major load of 150 kg is applied, causing
indenter to penetrate beyond its initial position
Additional penetration distance d is converted into
a Rockwell hardness reading by the testing
machine
Hardness testing methods: (b) Rockwell:
(1) initial minor load and (2) major load
Effect of Temperature on Properties

General effect of temperature on strength and ductility

 Hot Hardness

Ability of a
material to retain
hardness at
Hot hardness
typical hardness as
elevated
a function of
temperatures
temperature for
several materials
 Recrystallization in Metals
Most metals strain harden at room temperature
according to the flow curve (n > 0)
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and
deformed, strain hardening does not occur
Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that
is, n = 0
 Recrystallization Temperature
Formation of new strainfree grains is called
recrystallization
Recrystallization temperature of a given metal =
about onehalf its melting point (0.5 Tm) as
measured on an absolute temperature scale
Recrystallization takes time - the recrystallization
temperature is specified as the temperature at
which new grains are formed in about one hour
 Recrystallization and
Manufacturing
Recrystallization can be exploited in
manufacturing
Heating a metal to its recrystallization temperature
prior to deformation allows a greater amount of
straining, and lower forces and power are required
to perform the process
Forming metals at temperatures above
recrystallization temperature is called hot working
 Fluid Properties and
Manufacturing
Fluids flow
They take the shape of the container that holds them
Many manufacturing processes are accomplished
on materials converted from solid to liquid by
heating
Examples:
Metals are cast in molten state
Glass is formed in a heated and highly fluid state
Polymers are almost always shaped as thick fluids
 Viscosity in Fluids
Flow is a defining characteristic of fluids, but the
tendency to flow varies for different fluids
Viscosity is the resistance to flow that is
characteristic of a given fluid
Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction when
velocity gradients are present in the fluid
The more viscous the fluid, the higher the internal
friction and the greater the resistance to flow
Reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity the ease with which
a fluid flows
 Viscosity can be defined using two parallel plates
separated by a distance d
A fluid fills the space between the two plates.

Fluid flow between two parallel plates, one

stationary and the other moving at velocity v
 Shear Stress
Shear stress is the frictional force exerted by the fluid per unit
area
Motion of the upper plate is resisted by a frictional force
resulting from the shear viscosity of the fluid
This force F can be reduced to a shear stress by dividing by
plate area A

F

A
 Shear Rate
Shear stress is related to shear rate, which is defined
as the change in velocity dv relative to dy
dv

dy

where = shear rate, 1/s; dv = change in velocity, m/s;

and dy = change in distance y, m
Shear rate = velocity gradient perpendicular to flow
direction
 Shear Viscosity
Shear viscosity is the fluid property that defines the
relationship between F/A and dv/dy; that is,
F dv
or
A dy

where = a constant of proportionality called the

coefficient of viscosity, Pa-s
For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a constant
For non-Newtonian fluids, it is not
 Coefficient of Viscosity
Rearranging, coefficient of viscosity can be expressed:



Viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of shear stress to shear
rate during flow
 Viscosity of Polymers and Flow
Rate
Viscosity of a thermoplastic polymer melt is not
constant
It is affected by flow rate
Its behavior is non-Newtonian
A fluid that exhibits this decreasing viscosity with
increasing shear rate is called pseudoplastic
This complicates analysis of polymer shaping
processes such as injection molding
Viscous behaviors of Newtonian and pseudoplastic fluids. Polymer
melts exhibit pseudoplastic behavior. For comparison, the behavior
of a plastic solid material is shown.
 Viscoelastic Behavior

Material property that determines the strain it

experiences when subjected to
combinations of stress and temperature over
time
Combination of viscosity and elasticity
Comparison of elastic and viscoelastic properties:
(a) perfectly elastic response of material to stress applied over time; and
(b) response of a viscoelastic material under same conditions. The
material in (b) takes a strain that is a function of time and
temperature.
 Shape Memory

A common problem in extrusion of

polymers is die swell, in which the profile
of extruded material grows in size,
reflecting its tendency to return to its
previously larger crosssection in the
extruder barrel immediately before being
squeezed through the smaller die opening
It remembers
 (c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 6.11 (a) Determining the 0.2% offset yield strength in

gray cast ion, and (b) upper and lower yield point behavior in
a low-carbon steel