a) Elementary Time-domain

Operations
The three most basic time-domain signal
operations are:
Scaling
Delay
Addition
Scaling is simply the multiplication of the signal
by a positive or negative constant.
In the case of analog signals, the scaling
operation is usually called amplification, if the
magnitude of the multiplying constant is
greater than one.
 If the magnitude of the multiplying constant is
less than one, the operation is called attenuation.
If x(t) is an analog signal, the scaling operation
generates y(t)= ax(t). Where a is the multiplying
constant.
The delay operation generates a signal that is a
delayed replica of the original signal.
If an analog signal x(t), y(t) = x(t-t o) is the signal
obtained by delaying x(t) by the amount of to,
Which is assumed to be a positive number.
If to is negative, then its an advance operation.
 Many applications require operations
involving two or more signals to generate a
new signal.
For example, y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) +x3(t) is the
signal generated by the addition of x 1(t),
x2(t) and x3(t).
An other elementary operation is the
product of two signals.
Thus the product of two signals x 1(t) and
x2(t), generates a signal y(t) = x1(t)*x2(t) .
 b) Filtering
One of the most widely used complex signal
processing operations is filtering.
The main function of filtering is to alter the
spectrum according to some given
specifications.
The system implementing this operation is
called a filter.
A filter is used to pass certain frequency
components in a signal through the system
and to block other frequency components
 The range of frequencies that is allowed to
pass through the filter is called the
passband, and the range of frequencies
that is blocked by the filter is called
stopband.
A low pass filter passes all-low frequency
components below a certain specified
frequency fc, called cutof frequency, and
blocks all high-frequency components
above fc.
 A high-pass filter passes all
frequency components above a
certain cutoff frequency fc, and
blocks all-low frequency components
below fc.
 A bandpass filter passes all
frequency components between two
cutoff frequencies fc 1 and fc2 and
blocks all frequency components
below fc 1 and above fc 2.
 A bandstop filter blocks all frequency
components between two cutoff
frequencies fc 1 and fc 2 and passes
all frequency components below fc 1
and above fc 2.
 c) Modulation and
Demodulation
For transmission of signals over long distances, a
transmission media such as cable, optical fiber
or the atmosphere is employed.
Each such medium has a bandwidth that is more
suitable for the efficient transmission of signals
in the high-frequency range.
As a result, for the transmission of low-frequency
signals over a channel, it is necessary to
transform the signal to a high frequency signal
by means of modulation operation.
 At the receiving end, the modulated
high-frequency signal is demodulated
and the desired low-frequency signal
is then extracted by further
processing.
 d) Multiplexing and De-
multiplexing
For an efficient utilization of a wideband
transmission channel, many narrow-
bandwidth low-frequency signals are
combined to form a composite wideband
signal that is transmitted as a single
signal.
The process of combining these signals is
called multiplexing.
The recovery process at the receiving end
is called de-multiplexing.
 Why digital processing?
Processing basically can be
done in three ways:
Analog: Do not convert the
signal into digital, process it
in the analog form.
Digital: Digital is more
accurate than analog.
Mixed: Most of the signals in
practice are analog, then it
has to be digitized for the
transmission and finally
must be converted back into
analog form because you
cant hear 1s and 0s.
 Digital processing of an analog signal
consists of three steps:
Conversion of the analog signal into
digital form.
Processing of the digital version of the
signal.
Conversion of the processed digital
signal back into an analog form.

 Since the amplitude of the analog input signal
varies with time, a Sample-and-Hold (S/H)
circuit is used first to sample the analog input
at periodic intervals and hold the sampled
value constant at the input of the A/D converter
to permit accurate digital conversion.
The input to A/D converter is a staircase-type
analog signal
The A/D converter produces a binary data
stream.
 The data stream is next processed by the
digital processor (added or multiplied, etc).
The digital processor produces an other
data stream which is then converted into a
staircase-type analog signal by the D/A
converter.
The low pass filter removes all unwanted
high-frequency components, and delivers
at its output the desired processed analog
signal.
 A direct analog processing of an
analog signal is much simpler since it
involves only single processor.
Therefore a question can be, what is
the advantage of digital of analog
signal?
 Advantages of Digital Signal
Processing
A digital system is fairly independent of
temperature, aging, and most other
external parameters.
Digital processing allows sharing of a given
processor among a number of signals by
time sharing, thus reducing the cost of
processing per signal.
It is possible to integrate complex digital
signal processing systems on a single chip.
 Digital signals can be stored almost
indefinitely without any loss of information,
on various storage media such as optical
disks. On the other hand, stored analog
signals deteriorate rapidly as time progresses
and cannot be recovered.
Disadvantages:
Increased system complexity because of the need
of additional devices such as A/D and D/A
converters.
High power consumption.
 Discrete Time Signals and
Systems in the Time-Domain
The signals arising in digital signal processing are
basically discrete-time signals, and discrete-time
systems are used to process these signals.
A discrete-time signal in its most basic form is
defined at equally spaced discrete-values of time,
the independent variable, with the signal amplitude
at these discrete-times being continuous.
A discrete-time signal can be represented as a
sequence of numbers, with the independent time
variable represented as an integer in the range
from minus infinity to plus infinity.
 Discrete-time signal processing then involves
the processing of discrete-time signal by a
discrete-time system to develop an other
discrete-time signal with more desirable
properties or to extract certain information.
Thus, to understand the theory of digital
signal processing and the design of discrete-
time systems, we need to know the
characterization of discrete-time signals and
systems in the time domain.
 Time-Domain Representation of
Discrete-time Signals
In DSP, signals are represented in sequences of
numbers called Samples.
A sample value of a discrete-time signal is denoted as
x[n], with n being an integer in the range of minus
infinity to plus infinity.
A combination of samples form a sequence.
A sequence is written inside of braces.
The location of sample value associated with the time
index n=0 is indicated by an arrow under it.
The sample values to the right are for positive values
of n, and sample values to the left are for negative
values of n.
 An example of discrete-time signal

For the above signal, the sample