Chapter 22: Optical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
What phenomena occur when light is shined on a material?
What determines the characteristic colors of materials?
Why are some materials transparent and others are
translucent or opaque?
How does a laser operate?

Chapter 22 - 1
 Optical Properties
Light has both particulate and wavelike characteristics
Photon - a quantum unit of light

Chapter 22 - 2
 Refraction
Transmitted light distorts electron clouds. electron
no cloud
transmitted
transmitted + + distorts
light light

The velocity of light in a material is lower than in a vacuum.

n = index of refraction

-- Adding large ions (e.g., lead) to glass Material n

decreases the speed of light in the glass.
-- Light can be bent as it passes through a Typical glasses ca. 1.5 -1.7
transparent prism Plastics 1.3 -1.6
PbO (Litharge) 2.67
Diamond 2.41
Selected values from Table 22.1,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 22 - 3
 Total Internal Reflectance
n2 < n1

n2 1 = incident angle
n1 2 = refracted
cangle
= critical angle

c exists when 2 = 90
For 1 > c light is internally
reflected
Fiber optic cables are clad in low n material so that light will
experience total internal reflectance and not escape from the optical
fiber.
Chapter 22 - 4
 Example: Diamond in air
What is the critical angle c for light passing from diamond
(n1 = 2.41) into air (n2 = 1)?
Solution: At the critical angle,
and

Rearranging the equation

Substitution gives

Chapter 22 - 5
 Light Interactions with Solids
Incident light is reflected, absorbed, scattered, and/or
transmitted: I0 IT IA IR IS

Reflected: IR Absorbed: IA
Transmitted: IT
Incident: I0
Scattered: IS
Optical classification of materials:
Transparent Translucent Opaque Fig. 22.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Specimen preparation
P.A. Lessing.)

single polycrystalline polycrystalline

crystal dense porous

Chapter 22 - 6
 Optical Properties of Metals:
Absorption
Absorption of photons by electron transitions:
Energy of electron
unfilled states
to n
p ho E = h required!
ent h
i d
Inc rg y
e ne
of filled states
Plancks constant freq.
of
(6.63 x 10-34 J/s) incident
Adapted from Fig. 22.4(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
light
Unfilled electron states are adjacent to filled states
Near-surface electrons absorb visible light.

Chapter 22 - 7
 Light Absorption
The amount of light absorbed by a material is
calculated using Beers Law

= absorption coefficient, cm-1

= sample thickness, cm
I 0 = incident light intensity
IT = transmitted light intensity

Rearranging and taking the natural log of both sides

of the equation leads to

Chapter 22 - 8
 Reflection of Light for Metals
Electron transition from an excited state produces a photon.

Energy of electron
IR unfilled states
conducting electron
photon emitted Electron transition
from metal
surface
filled states

Adapted from Fig. 22.4(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 22 - 9
Reflection of Light for Metals (cont.)
Reflectivity = IR /I0 is between 0.90 and 0.95.
Metal surfaces appear shiny
Most of absorbed light is reflected at the
same wavelength
Small fraction of light may be absorbed
Color of reflected light depends on
wavelength distribution
Example: The metals copper and gold absorb light
in blue and green => reflected light has gold color

Chapter 22 - 10
 Reflectivity of Nonmetals
For normal incidence and light passing into a solid
having an index of refraction n:

Example: For Diamond n = 2.41

17% of light is reflected

Chapter 22 - 11
 Scattering of Light in Polymers
For highly amorphous and pore-free polymers
Little or no scattering
These materials are transparent
Semicrystalline polymers
Different indices of refraction for amorphous and
crystalline regions
Scattering of light at boundaries
Highly crystalline polymers may be opaque
Examples:
Polystyrene (amorphous) clear and transparent
Low-density polyethylene milk cartons opaque

Chapter 22 - 12
 Selected Light Absorption in
Semiconductors
Absorption of light of frequency by by electron transition
occurs if h > Egap
Energy of electron
Examples of photon energies:
unfilled states
blue light: h = 3.1 eV
red light: h = 1.8 eV

Egap
incident photon
energy h
filled states Adapted from Fig. 22.5(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

If Egap < 1.8 eV, all light absorbed; material is opaque (e.g., Si, GaAs)
If Egap > 3.1 eV, no light absorption; material is transparent and
colorless (e.g., diamond)
If 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, partial light absorption; material is colored
Chapter 22 - 13
 Computations of Minimum
Wavelength Absorbed
(a) What is the minimum wavelength absorbed by
Ge, for which Eg = 0.67 eV?

Solution:

(b) Redoing this computation for Si which has a band gap

of 1.1 eV

Note: the presence of donor and/or acceptor states allows for light
absorption at other wavelengths.

Chapter 22 - 14
 Color of Nonmetals
Color determined by the distribution of wavelengths:
-- transmitted light
-- re-emitted light from electron transitions
Example 1: Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Eg = 2.4 eV
-- absorbs higher energy visible light (blue, violet)
-- color results from red/orange/yellow light that is transmitted
Example 2: Ruby = Sapphire (Al2O3) + (0.5 to 2) at% Cr2O3
-- Sapphire is transparent and

Transmittance (%)
80
sapphire
colorless (Eg > 3.1 eV) 70
-- adding Cr2O3 : 60
ruby
alters the band gap 50
blue and orange/yellow/green wavelength, (= c/)(m)
40
light is absorbed 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
red light is transmitted Fig. 22.9, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from The Optical Properties of Materials, by
Result: Ruby is deep A. Javan. Copyright 1967 by Scientific American, Inc.
All rights reserved.)
red in color
Chapter 22 - 15
 Luminescence
Luminescence reemission of light by a material
Material absorbs light at one frequency and reemits it at
another (lower) frequency.
Trapped (donor/acceptor) states introduced by
impurities/defects
Conduction band If residence time in trapped state is
relatively long (> 10-8 s)
-- phosphorescence

For short residence times (< 10-8 s)

trapped Eemission -- fluorescence
Eg states
Example: Toys that glow in the dark.
activator Charge toys by exposing them to
level
light. Reemission of light over time
phosphorescence
Valence band
Chapter 22 - 16
 Photoluminescence
Hg atom

UV light

electrode electrode
Arc between electrodes excites electrons in mercury atoms in the
lamp to higher energy levels.
As electron falls back into their ground states, UV light is emitted
(e.g., suntan lamp).
Inside surface of tube lined with material that absorbs UV and
reemits visible light
- For example, Ca10F2P6O24 with 20% of F - replaced by Cl -
Adjust color by doping with metal cations
Sb3+ blue
Mn2+ orange-red
Chapter 22 - 17
 Cathodoluminescence
Used in cathode-ray tube devices (e.g., TVs, computer monitors)
Inside of tube is coated with a phosphor material
Phosphor material bombarded with electrons
Electrons in phosphor atoms excited to higher state
Photon (visible light) emitted as electrons drop back into
ground states
Color of emitted light (i.e., photon wavelength) depends on
composition of phosphor
ZnS (Ag+ & Cl-) blue
(Zn, Cd) S + (Cu++Al3+) green
Y2O2S + 3% Eu red

Note: light emitted is random in phase & direction

i.e., is noncoherent

Chapter 22 - 18
 The LASER
The laser generates light waves that are in phase
(coherent) and that travel parallel to one another

LASER
Light
Amplification by
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Operation of laser involves a population inversion of

energy states process

Chapter 22 - 19
 Population Inversion
More electrons in excited energy states than in ground states

Fig. 22.14, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 22 - 20
 Operation of the Ruby Laser
pump electrons in the lasing material to excited
states
e.g., by flash lamp (incoherent light).

Fig. 22.13, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Direct electron decay transitions produce incoherent light

Chapter 22 - 21
Operation of the Ruby Laser (cont.)
Stimulated Emission
The generation of one photon
by the decay transition of an
electron, induces the emission
of other photons that are all in
phase with one another.
This cascading effect produces
an intense burst of coherent
light.

This is an example of a
pulsed laser

Fig. 22.15, Callister

& Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 22 - 22
 Continuous Wave Lasers
Continuous wave (CW) lasers generate a continuous (rather
than pulsed) beam
Materials for CW lasers include semiconductors (e.g., GaAs),
gases (e.g., CO2), and yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG)
Wavelengths for laser beams are within visible and infrared
regions of the spectrum
Users of CW lasers
1. Welding
2. Drilling
3. Cutting laser carved wood, eye surgery
4. Surface treatment
5. Scribing ceramics, etc.
6. Photolithography Excimer laser

Chapter 22 - 23
 Semiconductor Laser Applications
Apply strong forward bias
across semiconductor layers,
metal, and heat sink.
Electron-hole pairs generated
by electrons that are excited
across band gap.
Recombination of an
electron-hole pair generates
a photon of laser light

electron + hole neutral + h

recombination ground state

photon of
Fig. 22.17, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
light

Chapter 22 - 24
Semiconductor Laser Applications
Compact disk (CD) player
Use red light
High resolution DVD players
Use blue light
Blue light is a shorter wavelength than red light so it
produces higher storage density
Communications using optical fibers
Fibers often tuned to a specific frequency
Banks of semiconductor lasers are used as flash lamps
to pump other lasers

Chapter 22 - 25
 Other Applications of Optical
Phenomena
New materials must be developed to make new &
improved optical devices.
Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
More than one color available from a single diode
Also sources of white light (multicolor)

Fig. 22.12, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Reproduced by arrangement with Silicon
Chip magazine.)

Chapter 22 - 26
 Other Applications - Solar Cells
p-n junction: Operation:
-- incident photon of light produces elec.-hole pair.
P-doped Si -- typical potential of 0.5 V produced across junction
conductance Si -- current increases w/light intensity.
electron creation of
Si P Si hole-electron
light pair
Si - - -
n-type Si
p-n junction -
n-type Si p-type Si +
p-n junction + + +
p-type Si
Solar powered weather station:
hole Si

Si B Si

Si
B-doped Si polycrystalline Si
Los Alamos High School weather
station (photo courtesy
P.M. Anderson)

Chapter 22 - 27
Other Applications - Optical Fibers
Schematic diagram showing components of a
fiber optic communications system

Fig. 22.18, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 22 - 28
 Optical Fibers (cont.)

fibers have diameters of 125 m or less

plastic cladding 60 m thick is applied to fibers

Fig. 22.20, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 22 - 29
 Optical Fiber Designs
Step-index Optical Fiber

Fig. 22.21, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Graded-index Optical Fiber

Fig. 22.22, Callister & Rethwisch

9e.
Chapter 22 - 30
 SUMMARY
Light radiation impinging on a material may be reflected

from, absorbed within, and/or transmitted through

Light transmission characteristics:
-- transparent, translucent, opaque
Optical properties of metals:
-- opaque and highly reflective due to electron energy band
structure.
Optical properties of non-Metals:
-- for Egap < 1.8 eV, absorption of all wavelengths of light radiation
-- for Egap > 3.1 eV, no absorption of visible light radiation
-- for 1.8 eV < Egap < 3.1 eV, absorption of some range of light
radiation wavelengths
-- color determined by wavelength distribution of transmitted light
Other important optical applications/devices:
-- luminescence, photoconductivity, light-emitting diodes, solar
cells, lasers, and optical fibers Chapter 22 - 31
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 22 - 32