Corona Effect

When an alternating potential difference is applied

across two conductors whose spacing is large
ascompared to their diameters, there is no
apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air
surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low .
However, when the applied voltage exceeds a
certainvalue, called critical disruptive voltage, the
conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow
calledcorona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a
hissing sound, production of ozone, power lossand
radio interference.
 Explanation of corona
formation:
Some ionization is always present in air due to
cosmic rays, ultraviolet radiations and radioactivity.
Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around
the conductorscontains some ionized particles (i.e.,
free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules.
When p.dis applied between the conductors,
potential gradient is set up in the air which will have
maximumvalue at the conductor surfaces .
Under the influence of potential gradient, the
existing free electronsacquire greater velocities. The
greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential
gradient andmore is the velocity of free electron.
Explanation of corona formation
cont..
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface
reaches about 30 kV per cm (max. value),
This velocity acquired by the free electrons is
sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough
forceto dislodge one or more electrons from it.
This produces another ion and one or more free
electrons, which is turn are accelerated until they
collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing
otherions.
Thus, the process of ionization is cumulative . The
result of this ionization is that either coronais formed
or spark takes place between the conductors.
 Factors effecting Corona Effect:

Atmosphere :
Conductor size :
Spacing between conductors :
Line voltage :
 Skin Effect
The alternating current flowing through the conductor
is non-uniformly distributed throughout its length.
This is because the outer strands of the conductor
(i.e., the strands which form the surface of the
conductor) carry more current than the inner strands
(i.e., the strands which are closer to the center of the
conductor).
This non-uniform distribution of current causes an
increase in the resistance of the conductor to the flow
of alternating current.
This effect is known asskin effectand it shown in
figure.
Skin Effect cont..
 Skin Effect cont..
This effect is termed because skin effect as the
charges flow through the surface (skin) and not
through thecenterof the conductor.
The skin effect is absent when thecurrent is DC this
is because the direct current flowing through a
conductor spreads uniformly throughout the cross
sectional area of the conductor.
Why Skin Effect Occurs in Transmission Lines ?

The main cause of skin effect is the non-uniformity of flux

linkage.
 Factors Affecting Skin Effect in Transmission Lines

Skin effect primarily depends on the three important factors,

1. Operating frequencies
2. Size of conductor
3. Type of conductor.

Higher the operating frequency, the greater is the skin effect..

Bigger the diameter of conductor, higher is the skin effect.
The type of conductor also decides the level of skin effect.
Theskin effectis less incase of a stranded conductor than a
solid conductor.
 Proximity Effect
The non-uniform distribution of
alternating current in a conductor due
to the presence of other current
carrying conductors in the Vicinity, is
called asproximity effect.
Theproximity effectincreases the
effective resistance of the conductor
and is always associated with the
magnetic fields of two or more
conductors in the Vicinity as shown in
a figure below,
Proximity Effect cont.
 Explanation of Proximity
Effect
Consider two conductors placed in the vicinity as
shown in figure.
Let each conductor be divided in to three parts of
equal crosssection. This form three parallel
loops i.e., 1-1' 2-2' and 3-3'.
The flux linking loop 1-1 is least and hence its
inductance will be less which in turn causes
higher current density at the inner edges of the
conductor.
Similarly the flux linking loop of 2-2 and 3-3' will
be more and hence the inductance will be more
which gives rise to lower current densities as we
move towards the outer edge.
 Ferranti Effect in Power System

In general practice we know, that for all

electrical systems current flows from the
region of higher potential to the region of
lower potential.
To compensate for the electrical potential
difference that exists in the system. In all
practical cases the sending end voltage is
higher than the receiving end due to line
losses,
So current flows from the source or the
supply end to the load.
 Ferranti effect cont..
But Sir S.Z. Ferranti, in the year
1890, came up with an astonishing
theory about medium distance
transmission line or long distance
transmission lines suggesting that in
case of light loading or no load
operation of transmission system,
the receiving end voltage often
increases beyond the sending end
voltage, leading to a phenomena
 Ferranti Effect cont.
Why Ferranti Effect occurs in a
Transmission Line?
A long transmission line can be considered to
compose a considerably high amount of
capacitance and inductance distributed across
the entire length of the line.
Ferranti Effect occurs when current drawn by
the distributed capacitance of the line itself is
greater than the current associated with the
load at the receiving end of the line(during light
or no load).
 Ferranti effect cont.
This capacitor charging current leads to
voltage drop across the line inductor of the
transmission system which is in phase with
the sending end voltages.
This voltage drop keeps on increasing
additively as we move towards the load end
of the line and subsequently the receiving
end voltage tends to get larger than applied
voltage leading to the phenomena called
Ferranti effect in power system.
 What are Bundled Conductors?
We can often see the transmission lines where
instead of a single conductor per phase multiple
conductors per phase are being used.
Conductor of a phase are grouped together by a
metallic structure called spacers.
The spacers help maintaining constant distance
between the conductors throughout length, avoid
clashing of conductors among themselves and also
connect them in parallel.
Generally each phase has two or three or four
conductors. Figures below shows bundled
conductors with spacers for the three
configuration.
Bundled conductor cont.
 Composite Conductors
Composite conductorsare the composition of different
metal conductors placed in a single strand.

The composite conductors are made up of various metals

similar to conductors.
These various metal conductors are placed in a single
strand. This multiple composition of conductors in a single
strand is termed as composite conductors.
In composite conductors the current divides equally for
each conductor and flows efficiently.
For example, ACSR (Aluminum Core Steel Reinforced) is a
composite conductor in which aluminum and steel
conductors are mixed and formed as layers. Figure 1 is the
ACSR composite conductor

Composite conductor cont.

Advantages of composite conductor

Composite conductors have following advantages.

1. Composite conductors allow high conductivity.
2. The mechanical strength of composite conductors
is more than solid conductors. Therefore, sags are
reduced and can be used for long distances.
3. The corona loss will be reduced with these
conductors and these are highly resistant for
corrosion.
4. These are highly reliable.
5. The proximity and skin effects are reduced with
these conductors