Conducting Research (1)
Dr. Rasha Salama
PhD. Community Medicine
Suez Canal University
Egypt
Research
Research is the systematic
collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to answer
a certain question or solve a
problem
It is crucial to follow cascading
scientific steps when
conducting ones research
Steps of Scientific Research
Selection of area no need for
study
Selection of topic answers found
Crude research question Literature
review
no answer
Refined research question
Research hypothesis, goals and objectives
Study design Ethical
issues
Population & sampling
Variables confounding bias
Research tools
Pilot study
Work plan
Collection of data
Data management
Interpretation
Reporting
Selection of Research Area
Selection of this broad entity
of research is based on the
following:
researchers:
Specialty
Interest
Scientific background
Experience
Actual need for research in this
area
Available resources (interest of
funding body)
Selection of Research Topics
The priority of a topic for research
depends on:
The characteristics of the problem (topic):
Impact on health:
Magnitude
Seriousness
Preventability
Curability
Available interventions
Proposed solutions
The characteristics of the proposed study:
Feasibility
Cost-effectiveness
Applicability of the results
Research question
The investigator must make sure
that:
He has a research question
The question is clear and specific
It reflects the objectives of the study
It has no answer by common sense
It has no answer in the LITERATURE
Finding an answer to the question
will solve or at least help in solving
the problem to be studied.
Doing a Literature Review
What is a Literature
Review?
a literature review
surveys scientific articles,
books, medical journals,
dissertations and other
sources [] relevant to a
particular issue, area of
research, or theory,
providing a description,
summary, and critical
evaluation of each work.
Purpose of Literature Review
A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis
or dissertation, or may be a self-contained review of writings on a
subject. In either
Place each case,
work in the its purpose
context is to:
of its contribution to
the understanding of the subject under review
Describe the relationship of each work to the others
under consideration
Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on
any gaps in, previous research
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory
previous studies
Identify areas of prior research to prevent
duplication of effort
Place one's original work (in the case of theses or
dissertations) in the context of existing literature
Literature Review as a
Process
Components of Lit. Review
Development of the literature
review requires four stages:
Problem formulationwhich topic or field
is being examined and what are its
component issues?
Literature searchfinding materials
relevant to the subject being explored
Data evaluationdetermining which
literature makes a significant
contribution to the understanding of the
topic
Analysis and interpretationdiscussing
the findings and conclusions of pertinent
literature
Working with Literature
Workingwith
Working with
Literature
Literature
Findit!
Find it! Manageit!
Manage it! Useit!
Use it! Reviewit!
Review it!
Knowingthe
Knowing the Reading
Reading Understandingthe
Understanding the
Choosingyour
Choosing yourresearch
researchtopic
topic
literaturetypes
literature types efficiently
efficiently litlitreviews
reviewspurpose
purpose
Keepingtrack
Keeping track Ensuringadequate
Ensuring adequate
Usingavailable
Using availableresources
resources Developingyour
Developing yourquestion
question
ofofreferences
references coverage
coverage
Honingyour
Honing your Arguingyour
Arguing your Writing
Writing
Writingrelevant
Writing relevantannotations
annotations
search skills
search skills rationale
rationale purposefully
purposefully
Informingyour
Informing yourwork
workwith
with Workingon
Working on
theory
theory style and tone
style and tone
Designing
Designing
method
method
Sources of Literature
Journal articles:
these are good sources,
especially for up-to-date
information. They are
frequently used in literature
reviews because they offer a
relatively concise, up-to-date
format for research.
Depending on the publication,
these materials may be
refereed materials.
What about Non-refereed
Journals?
Non-refereed materials such as
Trade Journals, or
magazines use less rigorous
standards of screening prior to
publication.
Non-refereed materials may
not be checked as intensely as
refereed materials, but many
can still be considered useful,
although not for scientific
literature and research.
Sources of Literature (cont.)
Books:remember that books
tend to be less up-to-date, as
it takes longer for a book to be
published than for a journal
article.
They are still likely to be useful
for including in your literature
review as they offer a good
starting point from which to
find more detailed and up-to-
date sources of information.
Sources of Literature (cont.)
Conference proceedings:
these can be useful in
providing the latest research,
or research that has not been
published.
They are also helpful in
providing information about
people in different research
areas, and so can be helpful in
tracking down other work by
the same researchers.
Sources of Literature (cont.)
Government/corporate
reports:
Many government departments
and corporations commission
carry out research.
Their published findings can
provide a useful source of
information, depending on your
field of study.
Sources of Literature (cont.)
Theses and dissertations: these can
be useful sources of information.
However there are disadvantages:
they can be difficult to obtain since
they are not published, but are
generally only available from the
library or interlibrary systems
the student who carried out the
research may not be an experienced
researcher and therefore you might
have to treat their findings with
more caution than published
research.
Sources of Literature (cont.)
Internet: the fastest-growing source of
information is on the Internet.
bear in mind that anyone can post
information on the Internet so the
quality may not be reliable
the information you find may be
intended for a general audience and
so not be suitable for inclusion in
your literature review (information
for a general audience is usually less
detailed)
In assessing each piece, consideration
should be given to:
ProvenanceWhat are the author's
credentials? Are the author's arguments
supported by evidence (e.g. primary
historical material, case studies, narratives,
statistics, recent scientific findings)?
ObjectivityIs the author's perspective
even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary
data considered or is certain pertinent
information ignored to prove the author's
point?
Persuasiveness is the author's thesis
convincing?
ValueDoes the work ultimately contribute
in any significant way to an understanding
of the subject of my research?
Writing Literature
Three components:
The introduction
The body
The conclusion
Writing the Introduction
In the introduction, you should:
Define or identify the general topic,
issue, or area of concern, thus providing
an appropriate context for reviewing the
literature.
Point out overall trends in what has been
published about the topic; or conflicts in
theory, methodology, evidence, and
conclusions; or gaps in research
Establish the writer's reason (point of
view) for reviewing the literature;
explain the criteria to be used in
analyzing and comparing literature
Writing the Body
In the body, you should:
Group research studies and other
types of literature (reviews,
theoretical articles, case studies, etc.)
according to common denominators
such as qualitative versus quantitative
approaches, conclusions of authors,
specific purpose or objective, etc.
Summarize individual studies
Make comparisons and analyses.
Writing the Conclusion
In the conclusion, you should:
Summarize major contributions of
significant studies and articles to the
body of knowledge under review,
maintaining the focus established in the
introduction.
Evaluate the current "state of the art"
pointing out major methodological flaws
or gaps in research, inconsistencies in
theory and findings, and areas or issues
pertinent to future study.
Conclude by providing some insight into
the relationship between the central
topic of the literature review and a larger
area of study (rationale)
Rationale
An explanation of the
fundamental reasons for
your research
Justification of your work
A few things that worked for
me
Learn / use effective search
strategies
Keep a credible research journal
Write about everything you
read
Dont write a lit review (yet)
Write a summary (today)
Read others lit reviews
Ask questions!
Goals and Objectives
Goals = Objectives
Research Goal & Objectives
The goal (aim) and objectives must be
stated at the very beginning of the
study, since they will guide the
investigator during the process of
formulating research questions and
hypothesis.
They will also help in the prioritization
process.
They will enable the reader or consumer
of the work to judge whether the
investigator had achieved these
objectives or not.
Goals
It describes the aim of the
work in broad terms
Objectives
These are more specific
and relate directly to
research question. They
may be divided into two
types:
Primary objectives
(bound to be achieved)
Secondary objectives (by
the way)
Research Objectives
The research objectives should be:
Closely related to the research question
Covering all aspects of the problem
Very specific
Ordered in a logical sequence
Stated in action verbs that could be
evaluated e.g. to describe, to identify,
to measure, to compare, etc.
Achievable, taking into consideration
the available resources and time
Mutually exclusive, with no repetitions
or overlaps
SMART Objectives
S Specific
M Measurable
A Achievable
R Relevant
T Time-
bound
Research objectives
Properly formulated,
specific objectives will
facilitate the development
of your research
methodology and will help
to orient the collection,
analysis, interpretation and
utilization of data.
Research Hypothesis
Research hypothesis is a
statement of the research
question in a measurable
form
Research Hypothesis (cont.)
A hypothesis can be defined as a
prediction or explanation of the
relationship between one or more
independent variables
(PREDISPOSING/RISK FACTORS) and
one dependent variable
(OUTCOME/CONDITION/DISEASE)).
A hypothesis, in other words,
translates the problem statement into
a precise, clear prediction of expected
outcomes.
It must be emphasized that
hypotheses are not meant to be
haphazard guesses, but should reflect
the depth of knowledge, imagination
and experience of the investigator.
Research Hypothesis (cont.)
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis
Example 1: (KAP Study)
Area: Family medicine
Topic: communicable diseases-
hepatitis
Goal: to contribute to the
reduction of hepatitis in Qatar
through studying public
perceptions about the disease
Objective: To assess the
awareness, knowledge, and
attitudes of the general public
towards hepatitis in Qatar
Example 2: (Interventional Study)
Research area: cardiology
Research topic: ischemic heart disease (IHD)
Goal: to contribute to prevention of IHD
Primary objective: to determine the effect of
reducing LDL on the occurrence of MI
Secondary objective: to describe the side
effects of lowering LDL
Research question: does
hypocholesterolemic agent A decrease the
risk of MI?
Research hypothesis: the risk of MI among
patients treated with hypocholesterolemic
agent A is lower than the risk among
controls not treated with
hypocholesterolemic agents
Thank You
