The Rock Cycle
Rocksarenaturallyoccurring
combinationsorcoherent
aggregatesofminerals,fossils
orotherhardmaterials.They
areclassifiedbythewayin IGNEOUS
whichtheyform.Thethree
rocktypesare:igneous,
sedimentaryand
metamorphic.
METAMORPHIC SEDIMENTARY
AllrocksonEartharelockedinto weathering, transportation,
lithification
asystemofcyclingandre
cyclingknownastheROCK heat, pressure, ions
CYCLE.
Study of sedimentary geology aims at:
The description and classification of clastic/nonclastic sedimentary rocks.
Processes and their products in the sedimentary record that aid in
interpreting ancient sedimentary environments.
Ageofrocks:
Based on relative age (relative to associated rocks)
or
absolute age (radiometric dating)
Earth History:
The history of changing environments on Earth
Environmental interpretation of rocks + Age of rocks
TheSedimentsandtheSedimentaryRocks
Averybasicclassificationof
allsedimentaryrocksis
basedonthetypeofmaterial
thatisdepositedandthe
modesofdeposition.
The study of sediment and sedimentary rocks that are made up of particles that are the
solid products of weathering at or near the Earths surface.
66% of the surface of the Earth is covered by sediment or sedimentary rocks
Clastic Sedimentology
Gravel Sand Mud(siltandclay)
Conglomerate Sandstone SiltstoneandShale
Exploit resources from it.
Environmental interpretation: The present is the key to the past
By examining the characteristics of various environments on Earth today,
environments in which ancient sediments were deposited can be interpreted
The description and classification of clastic sediment along with the process(es)
involved and their products in the sedimentary record aid in interpreting ancient
sedimentary environments
Surface Processes: chemical and physical weathering
and sedimentary rocks
Questions
How do rocks get destroyed and recycled at the surface
of the Earth?
At the other end of the transport system, how do
weathered and eroded materials end up making the
various kinds of sedimentary rocks?
What can observations of the sedimentary record reveal
about the tectonics, petrology, and climate of both
depositional environments and upstream source
environments?
6
Weathering and Sedimentation in the Rock Cycle
Geology so far has focused on internally-driven processes: plate
tectonics, magmatism, metamorphism, orogeny.
The rest of geology is
driven by surface
processes: the
hydrologic cycle
(rainfall, streams, ice),
gravity, aqueous
chemistry.
Weathering and
erosion are the
processes that form
and transport
sediment.
Sedimentation, burial
and lithification are
the processes that
transform weathering
products into
sedimentary rocks.
7
Weathering:decompositionofrocks
Thereisadistinctionbetween
weatheringanderosion:
Weatheringconvertsexposed
rocktosoilinplace
Erosiontransportsdissolved
orfragmentedmaterialfrom
thesourceareawhere
weatheringisoccurringtoa
depositionalenvironment.
Mostoftheearthssurfaceis
coveredbyexposureof
sedimentorsedimentaryrock,
byarea.
Butthesedimentlayeristhin
inmostplaces,withrespectto
overallcrustalthickness,so
sedimentaryrockisaminor
volumefractionofthecrust
(inpartbydefinition:once
buriedtothemidcrust,
sedimentsgetcookedto
metasediments).
8
Weathering:chemicalandphysical
ThedestructionofrocksattheEarths
surfacebyweatheringhastwo
fundamentalmodesofoperation:
Chemicalweatheringisdissolutionor
alterationoftheoriginalminerals,
usuallybyreactionswithaqueous
solutions
Chemicalweatheringputsionsfrom
thesourcemineralsintosolutionfor
subsequenterosionbytransportin
flowingwaterasdissolvedload.
Physicalweatheringisfragmentation
intoprogressivelysmallerparticles,
fromintactoutcroptobouldersandon
downtomineralfragmentsandsand
grains.
Physicalweatheringmakesloose
piecesofrockavailablefordownslope
movementbymasswastingortransport
inflowingwaterassuspendedorbed
load.
9
ChemicalWeathering
Chemicalweatheringisdrivenby
thermodynamicenergyminimization,just
likechemicalreactionsathigh
temperature.
Thesystemseeksthemoststable
assemblageofphases.
Thedifferencesarethat(1)kineticsare
slowandmetastabilityiscommon;(2)the
stablemineralsunderwet,ambient
conditionsaredifferentfromthoseathigh
TandP;(3)solubilityinwaterandits
dependenceonwaterchemistry(notably
pH)aremajordeterminantsinthestability
ofmineralsinweathering.
Afreshrockmadeofolivineand
pyroxeneswillendupasclaysandiron
oxides,withotherelementsinsolution
Afreshrockmadeoffeldsparsandquartz
willendupasclays,hydroxides,and
quartzinmostwaters.
10
ChemicalWeathering
11
ChemicalWeathering
Themostcommonalterationproductoffeldsparsiskaolinite,Al2Si2O5(OH)4,
whichservesasamodelfortheformationofclaysbyweatheringgenerally.
Thereactionsoffeldsparstokaoliniteillustratesomeofthebasictrends:
K,Na,Caarehighlysolubleandreadilyleachedbychemicalweathering.
ExcessSicanberemovedassilicicacidalthoughquartzisrelativelyinsoluble.
Alisextremelyinsoluble,andisessentiallyconservedassourcerockisconvertedtoclays.
Weatheringisahydrationprocess,leavingH2Oboundinthealteredminerals.
2KAlSi3O8+9H2O+2H+>Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K++4H4SiO4
NotetheH+onthelefthandsideonlyacidicwatercandrivethisreaction
NaturalwatersareacidicduetoequilibriumofcarbonicacidwithCO2intheatmosphere
CO2(g)+H2O=H2CO3
2KAlSi3O8+9H2O+2H2CO3>Al2Si2O5(OH)4+2K++4H4SiO4+2HCO3
Alterationofrocktransformsacidicrainwaterintoneutralsurfaceorgroundwater,
withbicarbonatethedominantspecies(relativetoCO2andCO32).
MgandFe2+arealsoreadilyleached,butFe3+isveryinsolubletheultimateresidue
ofalterationofmaficrocksislaterite.
12
ChemicalWeathering
Somemineralsarecongruentlysolubleinacidicwater,leavingnoresidue
Themostabundantiscalcite:CaCO3+H2CO3=Ca2++2HCO3(theTumsreaction)
Effectsofdissolution(andprecipitation)ofcalcitecanbedramatic,tosaytheleast.
Sinkhole Speleothems
Karstterrain 13
RatesofChemical
Weathering
Manyfactorsaffecttherate
atwhicharockwillweather,
assummarizedhere.
Someofthesevariablesare
local(e.g.,sourcerock),
someareglobal.These
includetemperatureand
pCO2,leadingtotheCO2
weatheringfeedbackcycle.
14
PhysicalWeathering
Anythingthatpromotesdisaggregrationofarocksothatpiecescanformsoilorbe
erodedawaybywind,water,orgravitytransportisphysicalweathering.
Thedistinctionbetweenphysicalweatheringanderosionissubtle,butthinkofphysical
weatheringasfragmentingtherockanderosionascarryingthefragmentsaway;attimes
thesemaybethesameevent,ofcourse.
Rocksthatarejointedorfaultedorhavepreexistingweakzonesaremosteasily
weathered.
Fewofthestressesassociatedwithphysicalweatheringaresignificantcomparedtothe
tensilestrengthofintactrocks;something,hastostarttheprocess,eitherinitialcracksand
weaknessesorchemicalattackonmineralcohesion.
Organisms,especiallyplants(thinktreeroots),arefondofbreakinguprocks.
Freezethaw,frostwedging,frostheavethevolumechangebetweeniceandwateris
effectiveinwideningcracksinrockinsuitableclimates.
Physicalabrasionbyflowingairorwater,ormoreoftenbyrockparticlesalready
mobilizedbywaterorwind(thinkFossilFalls).
Tectonicsrockscaughtinafaultzonearedefinitelyundergoingphysicalweathering.
Etc.
15
Weatheringfeedbacks:chemicalandphysical
Physicalweatheringand
chemicalweathering
generallyproceedin
parallelinmost
environments.
Physicalandchemical
weatheringpromoteone
another:
Formationofcracksby
physicalweathering
increasesreactivesurface
area,promotingchemical
weathering.
Chemicalweathering
replacesintact
interlockingmineralswith
weakclaysorvoidspace,
makingtherockeasierto
physicallydisaggregate,
promotingphysical
weathering
16
Weatheringfeedbacks:
moregenerally
Weatheringofbothkindsplays
keyrolesinseveralfeedbacks.
Tectonicsaffectsweathering
throughslopesandelevations,
climateaffectsweathering
throughtemperatures(via
chemicalkineticsandfreeze
thaw),rainfall,pCO2,etc.
Conversely,weatheringand
erosionaffecttectonicsand
climate:
Denudationbyerosionmustbe
isostaticallycompensatedand
soaffectverticalmotionsofthe
crust
Weatheringcontrolswater
chemistry,coursesofstreams
andgroundwater,removesCO2
fromtheatmosphere,etc.
17
Soilformation
Chemicallyandphysicallyweatheredrockthatisnot
erodedortransportedbutremainsinplacebecomessoil.
Aweatheredsurfacedevelopsa
stratifiedstructure,withintactrockat
thebottom(orinside)andmaximum
weatheringatthetop.
Leachableionsaretransported
downwardsbygroundwaterflow,
possiblyredepositedaswater
chemistryadjuststowardsequilibrium
withthedevelopingsoilprofile.
18
Soilformation
Themineralogyandthicknessofsoillayersdependsonsourcerock,climate
(temperatureandrainfall),andage.
Whichofthesesoiltypeswouldyouratherfarm?
19
ErosionandTransport
Betweenweatheringandsedimentation,mattermustbe
transportedfromsourcetodestination.Thisiserosion.
Wedealtwiththelandformsgeneratedbyerosioninthe
geomorphologylecture;hereourconcerniswiththeeffectsof
transportonsedimentaryrocks.
Modesoftransport:
Gravity(shortdistancesandsteepslopes)
Wind(smallparticlesonly)
Glaciers
Water
Surfacerunoffcarriesdissolved,suspended,andbedloads
Groundwaterflowonlycarriesdissolvedload
Allthesemechanismscarryproductsofphysical
weatheringandinsolubleresiduesofchemical
weathering.
Onlywatertransportcarriesawayleachedsoluble
productsofchemicalweathering.
20
ErosionandTransport
Certainmodesoftransportphysicallymodifyand
physicallyandchemicallysortparticlesenroute.
Sizesortingbysurfacewaterrunoffflow:
Currentofagiven
velocitycangenerally
carryallnoncohesive
particlessmallerthana
criticalsize;since
currentvelocitydrops
withdecreasingslopes
frommountainsto
lowlands,itfollowsthat
sedimentsevolvefrom
poorlysortedand
coarsegrainednear
sourcetowellsorted
andfinergrainedwith
increasingtransport
distance.
21
ErosionandTransport
Chemicalsortingwith
increasingtransportdistance
islikeacontinuationof
chemicalweatheringduring
intermittenttimeswhen
particlesaretemporarily
depositedbeforefurther
transport;moststable
mineralsaretransportedthe
furthest.
Texturesofparticlesare
modifiedbyabrasionduring
windorwatertransport.
Closetosourceparticlesare
angular;farfromsource
particlesarerounded.
22
Sedimentation
Eventuallytransportedparticlesanddissolvedionsreachaplacewheretheycan
bepermanentlydepositedandaccumulated.Thisissedimentation.
Thesedimentaryrocksthatresultfromthisaccumulationarecontrolledbyand
recordthesedimentaryenvironmentwheretheyweredeposited.
Weinterpretancientsedimentaryrocksbycomparisontomodern
environmentswherewecanobserveongoingsedimentaryprocessesand
relatethemtothecomposition,texture,andstructureoftheresultingrocks.
24
Sedimentation
Sedimentsandthe
environmentsinwhichthey
formarefundamentallydivided
intoclasticandchemical:
Clasticsedimentsaremadeof
physicallytransportedand
depositedparticles(theymay
latergainchemicallygrown
cementduringdiagenesis)
Chemicalsedimentsaregrown
fromsolution,organicallyor
inorganically;biochemical
sedimentmorespecifically
referstomineralsgrownfrom
solutionbyorganisms
Insomecasestherelationship
betweentheenvironmentand
thecharacterofthesedimentis
absoluteandobvious(carbonate
inreefs,boulderstrewntillin
periglacialdeposit,etc.);other
casesaremoresubtle.
25
Diagenesis
Theprocessofmodificationof
newlydepositedsedimentsinto
sedimentaryrocksisdiagenesisor
lithification.
Processesinclude:
physicalcompactionbythepressureof
overburden,accompaniedbyexpulsionof
porewaters
Growthofnewdiageneticmineralsand
continuedgrowthofchemicalsediments
fromporewaters.
Dissolutionofsolubleelementsofclastic
rocks.
Recrystallizationandremineralizationas
waterchemistry,pressure,andtemperature
evolve.
AtthehighTandPend,diagenesis
mergessmoothlyintothelowTandPend
ofmetamorphism.Thedistinctionis
arbitrary.
26
SedimentaryRocks
Thepreservedendresultofweathering,erosion,transport,
sedimentation,anddiagenesisissedimentaryrocks.
Likesedimentsandsedimentaryenvironments,theresultingrocksaredivided
intoclastic(orsiliciclasticorvolcaniclastic,etc.)andchemical(or
biochemical).
Clasticrocksareclassifiedbyparticlesize(andsorting)and
composition.
27
SedimentaryRocks
Chemicalsedimentsareprimarilyclassified,ofcourse,by
mineralogicalcomposition.
28
Sedimentaryrocksandenvironmentalinformation
Howdosedimentaryrockspreserveinformationabouttheir
depositionalenvironments?
Bycomposition,mineralogyandgrainsize,obviously,butalso
throughsedimentarystructure
Elementsofsedimentarystructure:
Bedding
Bedthickness,fromfinelylaminatedtomassive
Vasquezformation:massive BurgessShale:
fine
30m
30cm
29
Sedimentarystructure
Characterofbedding,fromsimplehorizontallaminaetocrossbedding,
ripples,softsedimentdeformation,orbioturbated.
Crossbeddingindicateshighand
unidirectionalcurrentvelocity,often
windsinterrestrialsettings,formingsand
duneleeslopes.
Ripplemarksrecordbackandforthactionbywavesinshallowwater.
30
SedimentaryStructure
Mudcracksdemonstrate
dryingoutofathinlayerof
sedimentfineenoughto
havesignificantcohesion.
Definiteproofofterrestrial
settingorveryshallowwater
marginalmarine.
MODERN ANCIENT
Whataboutthisstructure?
(Hint:itisnotthesurfaceof
theMoon)
31
SedimentaryStructure
Softsedimentdeformationindicatesslumpingorcompressionoflayers
beforecompletelithification.
Bioturbationisthevertical
mixingofsedimentarylayers
byburrowingorganisms.
Evidenceofsuchactivity
canbepreservedonbedding
surfacesastracefossils.
Indicativeofwaterdepth,
availabilityofnutrientsand
oxygen,etc. 32
SedimentaryStructure
GradedBedding:sortingofparticlesizeswithinbeds
indicatestimedependenceandhenceprocessofdeposition
Anenvironmentinwhichaepisodesofhighenergytransportgive
waytoperiodsoflowenergytransportgivesnormalgradedbeds:
Alluvialsettings,withwanderingchannelsthatfillupand
becomeoverbankdeposits
Continentalslopeswithturbiditycurrents
33
CarbonateRocks
Mostcarbonaterocksareentirely
biochemicalsediment,madeupofthebody
partsofcalciteoraragoniteprecipitating
organisms
Deepseacarbonateoozeismadeofforamshells
Reefcarbonatesaremadeofcoralreefs(usually)
Stromatolitesareformedbycarbonate
precipitationbymicroorganisms
34
Tourofsedimentaryenvironments
Letusgothrougheachofthemajorcategoriesofsedimentaryenvironment,
keepinginmindtherelationshipbetweenobservableprocessesin
modernsettingsandthepreservedfeaturesinancientexamples,andthe
waysinwhichobservationofasedimentaryrockformationcanbeused
toinferthetypeofsettinganddetailedinformationaboutit.
35
Sedimentaryenvironments:Terrestrial
I.Fluvial(riversandstreamsofallkindsandsizes)
a.AlluvialFans
Wesawalluvialfansonthefieldtrip.Theyformwheredrainagesexit
mountainfrontsontosurroundinglowlands.
Individualfansmaymergetoformapiedmontslope(likePasadena).
InaridregionslikeCalifornia,
sedimenttransporton
alluvialfansisdominated
bydebrisflowslike
mudslidesandlandslides,
andbyperiodicstream
flowsthatdividethefan
intochanneldeposits,
overbankdeposits.
Sortingispoor,butincreases
downstream;grainsize
decreasesdownstream;
sedimentsareoften
oxidizedandpoorinfossils
ororganicmatter.
36
Sedimentaryenvironments:Terrestrial
I.Fluvial
b.Riversystems
Riversareclassifiedintomeanderingor
braided,mostoften.
Braidingisfavoredbyhighsediment
load,steepgradients,variablestream
flow,andunstablepoorlyvegetated
banks.
Meanderingisfavoredbytheopposite.
37
Sedimentaryenvironments:
Terrestrial
I.Fluvial
b.Riversystems
Meanderingriversdevelopinafairly
regularpatternbychannelmigration,
leavingapredictablesequenceof
cyclic,finingupwardsedimentary
deposits.Braidedriverdepositsare
morechaoticleavesomewhatrandom
deposits,sincechannelswander
randomlyacrossthefloodplain.
38
Sedimentaryenvironments:
Terrestrial
II.Desertenvironment
Desertsbasinsarebasicallyalluvial
fans,playas,andsanddunes.They
maybedominatedbywindtransport
orbyfluvialtransportrestrictedto
rare,seasonalstormsandfloods
Alluvialfansaredebrisflowand
streamflowdeposits(asabove).
Playasaredryorseasonallakebedsdominatedby
evaporitesorfinegrainedandfinelylaminated
mudstonesandsiltstones.
Sanddunesleavefascinatingcrossbeddedtomassive
sandstonedeposits.
Sustained
depositionof
windblowndust
makesthick
depositsofloess.
39
Sedimentaryenvironments:
Terrestrial
III.Lacustrine(i.e.,lakes)
Lakesarespecial,comparedtoriversandoceans,inseveralways:
Smallsize(nolargewaves),absenceoftides,andlowcurrentsmakeslakesvery
lowenergysedimentaryenvironments.Coarsesedimentsarelimitedtotheir
margins.
Lakesgenerallykeepallsedimentthatarrivesfromalargedrainagearea,so
sedimentationratesarehigh,oftententimeshigherthanmarinesettings.
Openlakes(withinletandoutletstreams)areusuallyfreshwaterandgenerate
onlyclasticsediments.Closedbasinlakesbecomesalineandleadtochemical
dominatedsedimentation.Manylakedepositsshowcyclicalternationsbetween
closedandopenconditions.
Annualvariationsinsedimentsupply
(especiallyifthelakefreezesover Varves
eachwinter)areoftenpreservedin
lowenergylacustrinedepositional
environmentsascountableannual
layersorvarves.
40
Sedimentaryenvironments:
Terrestrial
IV.Glacialandperiglacial
Wesawsomeofthetypicalvalleyglacierdepositsonthefieldtrip.
Butthereismoretotheglacialenvironmentthanmorainesandtills.
Glaciersgeneratecharacteristicriverdeposits(frequentlybraided)andlake
deposits(frequentlyvarved)whentheyterminateonland,andcharacteristic
marinedepositswhentheyterminateintheocean(dropstones).Theymove
largeboulders,buttheyalsogeneratehugeamountsofveryfinerockflourthat
endsupasmudorloess.
Periglacialdeposits,like
mostsedimentary
sequences,haveseveral
facies:abasaltill
depositedinfrontofthe
glacierisoverlainby
moraines,lakesediments,
glaciofluvialdeposits,
andfinallyloess.
41
Sedimentaryenvironments:MarginalMarine
I.Deltaicenvironment:Deltasformwhereverriversemptyinto
oceansorlakes.Muchoftheclasticloadcarriedtothemouthofthe
riverisdepositedinarestrictedareaatornearthecoast,forminga
delta.
Becausedeltasprogradeoutwards,theybuilddepositswithreversegrading,
coarseningupwardsasthedeltamovespastagivenlocation.
Theforcesaffectingsedimentationinadeltaarefluvial,tidal,andwaves,and
differentdeltasdisplayeffectsofdominancebydifferentforces.
TheMississippideltais
fluvialdominated:
Bothtidesandwavesare
weakintheGulfof
Mexico,sodistributionof
sedimentisdominatedby
theriveritself,whichforms
long,relativelystable
channels(lifespan~1000
years)withlevees;each
channelnarrowsupwards
untilitpinchesoff.
42
Sedimentaryenvironments:MarginalMarine
I.Deltaicenvironment
Flowatthemouthofafluvialdominateddeltaiscontrolledbytherelativedensity
ofriveroutflowandambientseawater.Dependingonriversedimentloadand
temperature(andonoceansalinityandtemperature),theflowmaybehyperpycnal
(riveroutflowdenser),orhypopycnal(riveroutflowlessdense).
Hyperpycnalflowleadstoturbiditedepositsfromsedimentrichflowsalongthe
bottom.Hypopycnalflowleadstouniform,wellsortedsedimentssinceinthis
casesettlingiscontrolledbyflocculationoffineparticles.
43
Sedimentaryenvironments:
MarginalMarine
TheGangesBrahmaputra
deltaistidedominated
Althoughtheriveroutflowis
higherandmoresediment
ladenthantheMississippi,the
tidalrangeislarge(about4
meters).Thistypeofdelta
breaksupintosandbarsand
channelsorientedparalleltothe
tidalinflowoutflowdirection.
Thereisalarge,intermittently
exposed,tidalflat.
TheSaoFranciscoriverinBrazil
iswavedominated
Waveenergyhereis100timesthat
attheMississippi.Sediments
reachingthemouthoftheriverare
rapidlyreworkedandredistributed
bylongshorecurrentstobuild
beaches,barriers,andlagoons,
similartostretchesofcoastwhereno 44
riverispresent.
Sedimentaryenvironments:MarginalMarine
II.Beachbarrier
environment
Anycontinentalmarginwhere
thereisnotarivermouthis
likelytoformabeachwitha
singleshorefaceorabeach
barrierislandlagoonsystem
Abeachproducesa
distinctivelyorderedset
ofrecognizablefacies,
fromdunesandsthrough
thesurfzone,breaker
zoneandintodeeper
water.
Abarriercomplexhasa
lagoonandoftenaswamp
depositbehindthebarrier.
45
Sedimentaryenvironments:MarginalMarine
II.Beachbarrier
environment
Ifasimplebeachisprograding,
i.e.buildingouttoseaand
depositingnearshorefacies
ontopofdistalfacies,it
mightproduceastratigraphic
columnlikethis,coarsening
upwardsandhenceclearly
distinctfromanyriver
floodplainorcontinental
slopedeposit.
Keepinmindtherelationship
betweenthelateral
successionofenvironments
atanyconstanttimeacrossa
beachandthevertical
successionofsediments
showninacolumnlikethis
one.
46
Sedimentaryenvironments:MarginalMarine
III.Estuarineenvironment
Anestuaryisapartlyenclosedbodyofwateratthemouthofariver.
Itmaybepartofadelta;itmaybethelagoonbehindabarrierisland.Generally,
estuariesmusthaveaconnectiontotheopenoceanatleastathightide.Theyare
environmentsofmixingbetweenseawaterandfreshwater.Example:SanFrancisco
Bay
IV.Tidalflats
Awide,flatareaoflandbetweenlowtidelevelandhightidelevelis
atidalflat.Thesearecommonenvironmentsfordepositionofcarbonatesand
evaporites.Theymaybeassociatedwithdeltas,beaches,orestuaries
47
Sedimentaryenvironments:Marine
I.Neriticenvironments
Thistermreferstodepthsbelowwavebaseandlowtide,andabove
theshelfslopebreak.
Attimesofsealevelhighstand,whenshallowseascoverthecontinental
platforms,theneriticenvironmentmayencompassasignificantfractionofthe
earthsarea.
Theneriticenvironmentiswherecarbonatereefsarebuilt.
48
II.Oceanicenvironments Sedimentaryenvironments:Marine
Continentalslopedepositsarecharacterizedbyturbidites,cyclicfining
upwardsedimentarysequencesthatformbyturbidityflowsofsuspendedsediment
downthemoderatelysteepslopesofthecontinentalslope.
Deepsea(abyssal)deposits Thereisaclear
regionalpattern
withareas
dominatedby
chemicalsediment
(carbonateoozeor
siliceousooze)or
byaveryslow
accumulationof
fineclastic
particles(pelagic
clay).
Wewilldevelop
theocean
chemistryand
geologyto
understandthis
49
pattern...
