TRANSISTOR

ENGR. MARIFE A. ROSALES

I. TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
Transistor
Developed in December 23, 1947 in Bell
Laboratories By John Bardeen, William
Shockley, and Walter Brattain
Basically a resistor that amplifies
electrical impulses as they are from its
input to its output terminals
Basic Types
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
It is a three layer semiconductor device
consisting of either two N-type and one P-
type layers of materials or two P-type and
one N-type layers of semiconductor
materials.

The term bipolar refers to the use of

both holes and electrons as carriers in the
transistor structure.
Three Regions of BJT
Base
Region to which carriers flow from
emitter to collector.
1017 dopants/ cm3
Moderately/lightly doped
Very thin
Three Regions of BJT
Emitter
Region from which carriers flow
1019 dopants/ cm3
Heavily doped
Three Regions of BJT
Collector
Region to which carriers flow
1015 dopants/ cm3
Lightly doped
Largest
BJT Structure and Construction
BJT Structure and Construction
BJT Structure and Construction
BJT Structure and Construction
BJT Structure and Construction

Standard BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)

Symbols
BJT Structure and Construction
Proper Bias arrangement for npn and pnp
transistors for active operation as amplifier

Forward Reversed Biased of BJT

BJT Structure and Construction
Note in both case, BE is forward bias,
while BC is reversed bias

Forward Reversed Biased of BJT

Basic Transistor Operation
Operation inside

Note: IE = IB + IC
Transistor Currents
Operation inside

Note: IE = IB + IC
I is very small as compared to I + I
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
Two important parameters, DC (dc current
gain) and DC are introduced and used in the
transistor analysis.
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
Two important parameters, DC (dc current
gain) and DC are introduced and used in the
transistor analysis.
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
VCC forward biased the BE junction in both
npn and pnp transistor.

VBB reversed biased the BC junction in both

npn and pnp transistor.
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse
biased, while the other is forward biased.

Forward-biased junction of a pnp Reversed-biased junction of

pnp transistor a pnp transistor
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
Majority and minority carrier flow of a pnp
transistor.

The collector current, however, is comprised of two

componentsthe majority and minority carriers
The minority-current component is called the
leakage current and is given the symbol ICO (IC current
with emitter terminal Open).
Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
DC (dc current gain)

= ratio of dc collector current to dc base

current
= IC/IB

- designated as the equivalent hybrid(h)

parameter, hFE, on transistor data sheet.

- range is from 20 -200 or higher

Transistor Characteristics and
Parameter
DC (dc current gain)
= ratio of dc collector current to dc emitter
current
= IC/IE

- range is from 0.95 to 0.99 or greater but

always less than 1.
Current and Voltage Analysis
Consider basic transistor bias circuit
configuration below
Current and Voltage Analysis
From the previous slide, we have 3 dc
voltages and 3 dc currents such as:

IB dc base current
IE dc emitter current
IC dc collector current
VBE dc voltage at base with respect to emitter
VCB dc voltage at collector with respect to
base
VCE dc voltage at collector with respect to
emitter
Current and Voltage Analysis
At input side:
Note: when the base-emitter junction is forward-
biased, it is like a forward biased diode and has a
nominal forward voltage drop of:

VBE ~= 0.7V

To get the VRB by KVL,

VRB = VBB VBE ; VRB = IBRB

Current and Voltage Analysis
At Output side:

VCE = VCC VRC ; VRC = ICRC

VCE = VCC ICRC ; C I = DC IB

VCB = VCE VBE

Current and Voltage Analysis
EXAMPLE1: Determine the IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and
VCB, @ dc = 150
Current and Voltage Analysis
EXAMPLE2: Determine the IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and
VCB, if RB = 22k and RC = 220, VBB = 6V, and VCC = 9V
@ dc = 90.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
The common-base terminology is derived
from the fact that the base is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
To fully describe the behavior of a three-
terminal device such as the common-base
amplifiers two sets of characteristics
one for the driving point or input
parameters and the
other for the output side.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
The input set for the common-base amplifier as
shown in Fig. below will relate an input current
(IE) to an input voltage (VBE) for various levels
of output voltage (VCB).
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
The output set will relate an output current (IC)
to an output voltage (VCB) for various levels of
input current (IE) as shown in Fig. below
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
The output or collector set of characteristics
has three basic regions of interest, as indicated
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
The Active, Cut-off, and Saturation Region

ACTIVE REGION
The active region is the region normally
employed for linear (undistorted) amplifiers.

In the active region the collector-base junction

is reverse-biased, while the base-emitter
junction is forward-biased.
At the lower end of the active region the
emitter current (IE) is zero.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

ACTIVE REGION
Note in Fig. above that as the emitter current
increases above zero, the collector current
increases to a magnitude essentially equal to
that of the emitter current as determined by
the basic transistor-current relations.
The curves clearly indicate that
a first approximation to the relationship
between IE and IC in the active region is given
by
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

CUT-OFF REGION
As inferred by its name, the cut-off region is
defined as that region where the collector
current is 0 A,

IC = 0A

In the cut-off region the collector-base and

base-emitter junctions of a transistor are both
reverse-biased.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

SATURATION REGION
The saturation region is defined as that region
of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0 V.
In the saturation region the collector-base and
base-emitter junctions are forward-biased.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Note at active state:

The input characteristics of Fig. below reveal
that for fixed values of collector voltage (VCB),
as the base-to-emitter voltage increases, the
emitter current increases in a manner that
closely resembles the diode characteristics.

That is, once a transistor is in the on state,

the base-to-emitter voltage will be assumed to
be
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Note at active state:

From the figure above, it specify that with the
transistor in the on or active state the
voltage from base to emitter will be 0.7 V at
any level of emitter current as controlled by
the external network.
In fact, at the first encounter of any transistor
configuration in the dc mode, one can now
immediately specify that the voltage from base
to emitter is 0.7 V if the device is in the active
regiona very important conclusion for the dc
analysis to follow.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Using the characteristics of given figure,

a. determine the resulting collector current if IE =
3 mA and VCB = 10 V.
b. Using the characteristics of given figure,
determine the resulting collector current if IE
remains at 3 mA but VCB is reduced to 2 V.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Using the characteristics of given figure,

c. Using the characteristics of Figs. 1 and 2,
determine VBE if IC = 4 mA and VCB = 20 V.
d. Repeat part (c) using the characteristics of
Figs. 3.8 and 3.10c.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Using the characteristics of given figure,

c. Using the characteristics of Figs. 1 and 2,
determine VBE if IC = 4 mA and VCB = 20 V.
d. Repeat part (c) using the characteristics of
Figs. 3.8 and 3.10c.
COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

Alpha ()
In the dc mode the levels of IC and IE due to the
majority carriers are related by a quantity
called alpha and defined by

The ac alpha is formally called the common-

base, short-circuit, amplification factor, for
reasons that will be more obvious when we
examine transistor equivalent circuits
BJT BIASING
The proper biasing of the common-base
configuration in the active region can be
determined quickly using the approximation
IC = IE and assuming for the moment that IB =
0 A.

Npn not pointing in

TRANSISTOR AMPLIFYING ACTION
Consider below circuit: Common Base

Typical values of voltage amplification for the

common-base configuration vary from 50 to
300.
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFYING ACTION
The basic amplifying action was produced by
transferring a current I from a low to a high-
resistance circuit.
The combination of the two terms in italics
results in the label transistor; that is,
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION
The most frequently encountered transistor
configuration pnp and npn transistors

It is called the common-emitter configuration

since the emitter is common or reference to
both the input and output terminals (in this
case common to both the base and collector
terminals).
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

Two sets of characteristics are again necessary

to describe fully the behavior of the common-
emitter configuration:
one for the input or base-emitter circuit and
one for the output or collector-emitter
circuit.
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

NPN PNP
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

For the common-emitter configuration:

the OUTPUT characteristics are a plot of the

output current (IC) versus output voltage (VCE)
for a range of values of input current (IB).

The INPUT characteristics are a plot of the

input current (IB) versus the input voltage (VBE)
for a range of values of output voltage (VCE).
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

INPUT For the common-emitter configuration:

COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

OUTPUT For the common-emitter

configuration:
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

For the common-emitter configuration:

In the active region of a common-emitter

amplifier the collector-base junction is
reverse-biased, while the base-emitter
junction is forward-biased.
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION
Using the characteristics of figure,
a. determine IC at IB = 30 A and VCE = 10 V.
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

Using the characteristics of figure,

a. Using the characteristics of given figure,
determine IC at VBE = 0.7 V and VCE =15 V.

IB = 20 A
BJT Characteristic Operating
Regions
Linear-region operation:
B-E junction forward-biased
B-C junction reverse-biased
Cut off-region operation:
B-E junction reverse-biased
B-C junction reverse-biased
Saturation-region operation:
B-E junction forward-biased
B-C junction forward-biased
Beta ()
For practical devices the level of typically
ranges from about 50 to over 400, with most in
the midrange.
COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION
COMMON-COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION
The third and final transistor
configuration is the common-collector
configuration

The common-collector configuration is

used primarily for impedance-matching
purposes since it has a high input
impedance and low output impedance,
opposite to that of the common-base
and common-emitter configurations.
COMMON-COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION
COMMON-COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION
For the common-collector configuration
the output characteristics are a plot of
IE versus VEC for a range of values of IB.

The input current, therefore, is the

same for both the common-emitter and
common-collector characteristics.
COMMON-COLLECTOR
CONFIGURATION
The horizontal voltage axis for the
common-collector configuration is
obtained by simply changing the sign of
the collector-to-emitter voltage of the
common-emitter characteristics.
DC BIASING - BJT
The analysis or design of a transistor
amplifier requires a knowledge of both
the dc and ac response of the system.
Too often it is assumed that the
transistor is a magical device that can
raise the level of the applied ac input
without the assistance of an external
energy source.
DC BIASING - BJT
The dc level of operation of a transistor
is controlled by a number of factors,
including the range of possible operating
points on the device characteristics.
Each design will also determine the
stability of the system, that is, how
sensitive the system is to temperature
variations
DC BIASING - BJT
Although a number of networks are
analyzed in this chapter, there is an
underlying similarity between the
analysis of each configuration due to the
recurring use of the following important
basic relationships for a transistor:
DC BIASING - BJT
In fact, once the analysis of the first few
networks is clearly understood, the path
toward the solution of the networks to
follow will begin to become quite
apparent.
In most instances the base current IB is
the first quantity to be determined.
DC BIASING - BJT
The OBJECTIVE is to develop a level of
familiarity with the BJT transistor that
would permit a dc analysis of any system
that might employ the BJT amplifier.
OPERATING POINT
The term biasing appearing in the title
of this chapter is an all-inclusive term
for the application of dc voltages to
establish a fixed level of current and
voltage.
Fortransistor amplifiers the resulting dc
current and voltage establish an
operating point on the characteristics
that define the region that will be
employed for amplification of the
applied signal.
OPERATING POINT
Since the operating point is a fixed point
on the characteristics, it is also called
the quiescent point (abbreviated Q-
point).
By definition, quiescent means quiet,
still, inactive.
OPERATING POINT
The biasing circuit can be designed to
set the device operation at any of these
points or others within the active region.
OPERATING POINT
Various operating points within the limits
of operation of a transistor.
OPERATING POINT
If no bias were used, the device would
initially be completely off, resulting in a
Q-point at Anamely, zero current
through the device (and zero voltage
across it).
OPERATING POINT
For point B, if a signal is applied to the
circuit, the device will vary in current
and voltage from operating point,
allowing the device to react to (and
possibly amplify) both the positive and
negative excursions of the input signal.
If the input signal is properly chosen, the
voltage and current of the device will
vary but not enough to drive the device
into cutoff or saturation.
OPERATING POINT
Operating at point C also raises some
concern about the nonlinearities
introduced by the fact that the spacing
between IB curves is rapidly changing in
this region.
OPERATING POINT
Point D sets the device operating point
near the maximum voltage and power
level. The output voltage swing in the
positive direction is thus limited if the
maximum voltage is not to be exceeded.
OPERATING POINT
Point B therefore seems the best
operating point in terms of linear gain
and largest possible voltage and current
swing.
This is usually the desired condition for
small-signal amplifiers
In this discussion, we will be
concentrating primarily on biasing the
transistor for small-signal amplification
operation.
OPERATING POINT
One other very important biasing factor
must be considered. Having selected and
biased the BJT at a desired operating
point, the effect of temperature must
also be taken into account.
Temperature causes the device
parameters such as the transistor
current gain (ac) and the transistor
leakage current (ICEO) to change.
OPERATING POINT
Higher temperatures result in increased
leakage currents in the device, thereby
changing the operating condition set by
the biasing network.
Theresult is that the network design
must also provide a degree of
temperature stability so that
temperature changes result in minimum
changes in the operating point.
OPERATING POINT
This maintenance of the operating point
can be specified by a stability factor, S,
which indicates the degree of change in
operating point due to a temperature
variation.
OPERATING POINT
Forthe BJT to be biased in its linear or
active operating region the following
must be true:
1. The baseemitter junction must be
forward-biased (p-region voltage more
positive), with a resulting forward-bias
voltage of about 0.6 to 0.7 V.
2. The basecollector junction must be
reverse-biased (n-region more positive),
with the reverse-bias voltage being any
value within the maximum limits of the
device.
BJT Characteristic Operating
Regions
Linear-region operation:
B-E junction forward-biased
B-C junction reverse-biased
Cut off-region operation:
B-E junction reverse-biased
B-C junction reverse-biased
Saturation-region operation:
B-E junction forward-biased
B-C junction forward-biased
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT

The fixed-bias circuit of Fig. above

provides a relatively straightforward
and simple introduction to transistor dc
bias analysis.
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
Even though the network employs an
npn transistor, the equations and
calculations apply equally well to a pnp
transistor configuration merely by
changing all current directions and
voltage polarities.

The current directions of are the actual

current directions, and the voltages are
defined by the standard double-
subscript notation.
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
For the dc analysis the network can be
isolated from the indicated ac levels by
replacing the capacitors with an open
circuit equivalent.
In addition, the dc supply VCC can be
separated into two supplies (for analysis
purposes only) as shown to permit a
separation of input and output circuits.
It also reduces the linkage between the
two to the base current IB.
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
Forward Bias of BaseEmitter
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
Collector-Emitter Loop

But in this case, since VE = 0 V,

FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
EXAMPLE1: Determine:
(a) IBQ and ICQ.
(b) VCEQ.
(c) VB and VC.
(d) VBC.
Transistor Saturation
The term saturation is applied to any
system where levels have reached their
maximum values.
Transistor Saturation
The term saturation is applied to any
system where levels have reached their
maximum values.
Transistor Saturation
EXAMPLE1: Consider example in fixed
bias, determine the ICsat
Load-Line Analysis
The analysis thus far has been
performed using a level of
corresponding with the resulting Q-
point. We will now investigate how
the network parameters define the
possible range of Q-points and how
the actual Q-point is determined.
Load-Line Analysis
If we choose IC to be 0 mA

NETWORK
Load-Line Analysis

DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
If we choose IC to be 0 mA
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
Movement of Q-point with
increasing levels of IB
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
Effect of increasing levels of RC on
the load line and Q-point.
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
Effect of lower values of VCC on the
load line and Q-point.
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
Example: Given the load line of Fig.
below and the defined Q-point,
determine the required values of VCC, RC,
and RB for a fixed-bias configuration.
Fixed Bias Load-Line Analysis
Example: Given the load line of Fig.
below and the defined Q-point,
determine the required values of VCC, RC,
and RB for a fixed-bias configuration.

VCC = 20V
RC = 2mA
RB = 772k
EXAMPLE 2
For
the fixed-bias configuration,
determine,
(a) IBQ.
(b) ICQ.
(c) VCEQ.
(d) VC.
(e) VB.
(f) VE.
EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
The dc bias network of Fig. below
contains an emitter resistor to improve
the stability level over that of the
fixed-bias configuration.
The improved stability will be
demonstrated through a numerical
example later in the section.
The analysis will be performed by first
examining the baseemitter loop and
then using the results to investigate
the collectoremitter loop.
EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
BaseEmitter Loop
EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
CollectorEmitter Loop
EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
CollectorEmitter Loop
EXAMPLE
For the emitter
bias network,
determine:
(a) IB.
(b) IC.
(c) VCE.
(d) VC.
(e) VE.
(f) VB.
(g) VBC.
Load-Line Analysis
ASSIGNMENT/SEATWORK
PROBLEM 1: Given the information
appearing in Fig below, determine
(a) IC.
(b) RC.
(c) RB.
(d) VCE.
ASSIGNMENT/SEATWORK
PROBLEM 2: Determine VC and VB for the
network
ASSIGNMENT/SEATWORK
PROBLEM 3: Determine VCEQ and IE for the
network
ASSIGNMENT/SEATWORK
PROBLEM 4: Determine the voltage VCB
and the current IB for the common-base
configuration
ASSIGNMENT/SEATWORK
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Due: October 2, 2015