C

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 C History
• C is a programming language. The C language
was first developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie
at AT&T Bell Labs.
• Many ideas came from type less languages BCPL
and B

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 Introduction To C
• C is a high-level programming language.
– In the computer world, the further a programming language is from the
computer architecture, the higher the language's level. The high-level
programming languages, on the other hand, are closer to our human
languages.
• High-level programming languages, including C, have the following
advantages:
– Readability: Programs are easy to read.
– Maintainability: Programs are easy to maintain.
– Portability: Programs are easy to port across different computer platforms.
• C allows you to get control of computer hardware and peripherals.
That's why the C language is sometimes called the lowest high-level
programming language.
• Case – sensitive.
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 Introduction To C cont…
• C's syntax is terse and the language does not restrict what
is "allowed" -- the programmer can pretty much do
whatever they want.
• C's type system and error checks exist only at compile-
time. The compiled code runs in a stripped down run-time
model with no safety checks for bad type casts, bad array
indices, or bad pointers. There is no garbage collector to
manage memory. Instead the programmer manages heap
memory manually. All this makes C fast but fragile.

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 Why ‘C’ Language is required?
• Of higher level languages, C is the closest
to assembly languages
– bit manipulation instructions
– pointers (indirect addressing)
• Most microcontrollers have available C
compilers
• Writing in C simplifies code development
for large projects
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 C is a powerful and flexible language

• What you can accomplish with C is limited

only by your imagination. The language
itself places no constraints on you. C is used
for projects as diverse as operating systems,
word processors, graphics, spreadsheets,
and even compilers for other languages.

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 Tools Availability
• A wide variety of C compilers and helpful
accessories are available for wide range of
machines and platforms

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 C is a portable language

• Portable means that a C program written

for one computer system (an IBM PC, for
example) can be compiled and run on
another system (a DEC VAX system,
perhaps) with little or no modification.
Portability is enhanced by the ANSI
standard for C, the set of rules for C
compilers.
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 C is modular

• C code can (and should) be written in

routines called functions. These functions
can be reused in other applications or
programs. By passing pieces of information
to the functions, you can create useful,
reusable code

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 Compilation Process

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 Step 1

• Use an editor to write your source code. By

tradition, C source code files have the
extension .C (for example, MYPROG.C,
DATABASE.C, and so on).

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 Step 2

• Compile the program using a compiler. If the

compiler doesn't find any errors in the program, it
produces an object file. The compiler produces
object files with an .OBJ extension and the same
name as the source code file (for example,
MYPROG.C compiles to MYPROG.OBJ). If the
compiler finds errors, it reports them. You must
return to step 1 to make corrections in your source
code.
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 Step 3

• Link the program using a linker. If no errors

occur, the linker produces an executable
program located in a disk file with an .EXE
extension and the same name as the object
file (for example, MYPROG.OBJ is linked
to create MYPROG.EXE).

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 Step 4

• Execute the program. You should test to

determine whether it functions properly. If
not, start again with step 1 and make
modifications and additions to your source
code.

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 Compiling and Linking
• Compiler – translates .c file to machine
Source Code = .c
understandable language.
• Linker - to link together the object file,
Compiler the ANSI standard C library, and other
user-generated libraries to produce an
executable file—the binary code.
Object file = .o/.obj • The .obj and .exe files are both machine-
dependent.
Linker • All errors found by the compiler and
linker must be fixed before an .exe file
can be made.
Executable File = .exe

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 Writing Your First C Program…

• File name
• Comments - /* */, //, nested?
• #include
• main()
• printf(), “\n”
• return()
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 First C Program
1: #include <stdio.h>
2: main()
3: {
4: printf("Hello, World!\n");
5: return 0;
6: }

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 On TurboC IDE
• Press Alt+F9 to Preprocess, Compile and
Assemble

• Press Ctrl+F9 to Link and Run the program

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C Data Types
 Data types
All C variables are defined with a specific type. C has the
following built-in types.
char - characters
int - integers (whole numbers)
float -real numbers
void - valueless

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07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 21
 C Data Types (contd.)

1. char :
a) Occupy 1 byte
b) Much be enclosed with in single
quotes(‘’)
c) Format specifier is %c

Example: ‘A’ , ’5’ , ’=‘

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 C Data Types (contd.)

2. int :
a) Depending on the operating system and the C
compiler you're using, the length of an integer varies
b) Format Specifier is %d
c)No special char with in the integer constant

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 C Data Types (contd.)

3. float :
a) Occupies 4 bytes
b) Format specifier is %f
c) No special character
within the float constant

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 Expressions

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 Definition
• In C, an expression is anything that
evaluates to a numeric value. C expressions
come in all levels of complexity

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 Simple Expressions
• The simplest C expression consists of a single
item: a simple variable, literal constant, or
symbolic constant. Here are four expressions
Expression Description
PI A symbolic constant
(defined in the program)

20 A literal constant
rate A variable
-1.25 Another literal
07/12/21 constant
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 Evaluation of expressions
• A literal constant evaluates to its own
value. A symbolic constant evaluates to the
value it was given when you created it
using the #define directive. A variable
evaluates to the current value assigned to it
by the program.

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 Complex Expressions

• Complex expressions consist of simpler

expressions connected by operators.
For example: 2 + 8

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 Complex expressions
• Example:
1.25 / 8 + 5 * rate + rate * rate / cost

When an expression contains multiple

operators, the evaluation of the expression
depends on operator precedence

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 Interesting
• C expressions get even more interesting

Example:
i) x = a + 10;
ii) y = x = a + 10;
iii) x = 6 + (y = 4 + 5);

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 Operators

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 Data Manipulation with Operators
(contd.)

• Assignment Operator (=)

= Assignment operator
+= Addition assignment operator
-= Subtraction assignment operator
*= Multiplication assignment operator
/= Division assignment operator
%= Remainder assignment operator(modulo)
• Getting Negations of Numeric Numbers
x = -x;
• Incrementing or Decrementing by One
 Pre/post increment -> ++x; y++;
07/12/21  Pre/post decrement -> --x; y--;
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 Data Manipulation with Operators
(contd.)
• Relational operators
== Equal to
!= Not equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
• Cast Operator
convert one data type to a different one by
prefixing the cast operator to the operand
(data-type)x

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 More Operators
• Measuring Data Sizes
– sizeof (expression)
• Logical Operators:
• && : Logical AND
• || : Logical OR
• ! : Logical negation operator
• Bit-Manipulation Operators:
• & : Bitwise AND operator
• | : Bitwise OR operator
• ^ : Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR) operator
• ~ : Bitwise complement operator
• >> : Right-shift operator
07/12/21 • << : Left-shift operator
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 More Operators (contd.)

• Conditional Operator:

The only operator in C that can take three operands.

General form of the conditional operator is:
x ? y : z
x contains the test condition, y and z represent the final
value of the expression. If x returns nonzero (that is,
TRUE), y is chosen; otherwise, z is the result.

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 Operators Precedence chart
Symbol Meaning
++ -- post increment /
decrement
() function call
[] array element
-> pointer to structure
member
. structure or union
member
++ -- pre increment /
decrement
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!~ logical NOT, bitwise NOT

+- unary plus or minus

& address of
* indirection
sizeof Sizeof
(type) Typecast
*/% multiplication, division,
modulus
+- addition, subtraction
>>07/12/21
<< right shift, left shift
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< <= > >= relational inequalities
== != relational equal, not equal
& bitiwise AND

^ bitwise exclusive OR

| bitwise OR
&& logical AND
|| logical OR
?: conditional
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= += /= %= += -= assignment, compound
<<= >>= &= ^= |= assignment
, comma

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07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 41
 Anatomy of a C Function
• Function type:
– type of value a function is going to return after its execution
• Function name:
– Choose a name that reflects what the function can do.
• Arguments to the function:
– information passed to functions are known as arguments.
– An argument list contains two or more arguments that are
separated by commas.
• Opening & closing brace:
– braces are used to mark the beginning and end of a function /
statement block.
• Function body:
– contains variable declarations and C statements

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 C Keywords (ANSI’89)*

auto double int struct Storage class

specifier
break else long switch statement

case enum register typedef Type

specifier
char extern return union Storage class
modifier
const float short unsigned Label
operator
continue for signed void
All
default
do
goto
if
sizeof
static
volatile
while
* keywords in
lower-case

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 Variables
• A variable is a named data storage location in your
computer's memory. By using a variable's name in
your program, you are, in effect, referring to the
data stored there.

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 Rules To Create Variable Names

• The name can contain letters, digits, and the

underscore character (_).

• The first character of the name must be a letter.

The underscore is also a legal first character, but
its use is not recommended

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 Rules To Create Variable Names
Cont…
• Case matters (that is, upper- and lowercase
letters). Thus, the names count and Count
refer to two different variables

• C keywords can't be used as variable names

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 Constants

• Like a variable, a constant is a data storage

location used by your program. Unlike a
variable, the value stored in a constant can't
be changed during program execution. C
has two types of constants, each with its
own specific uses

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 Literal Constants

• A literal constant is a value that is typed

directly into the source code wherever it is
needed
Example:
int count = 20;
float tax_rate = 0.28;
The 20 and the 0.28 are literal constants

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 Symbolic Constants
• A symbolic constant is a constant that is
represented by a name (symbol) in your
program.
• Like a literal constant, a symbolic constant
can't change
• Whenever you need the constant's value in
your program, you use its name as you would
use a variable name
• The actual value of the symbolic constant
needs to be entered only once, when it is first
defined
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 How to Create a Symbolic constant

• C has two methods for defining a symbolic

constant: the #define directive and the
const keyword
Example:
#define PI 3.14159
const int count = 100;

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 Data Modifiers
• Data Modifiers enable you to have greater control
over the data:
1. signed 2. unsigned
3. short 4. long
• The signed Modifier:
• Used to enable the sign bit.
• Used to indicate to the compiler that the int or char
data type uses the sign bit.
• All int variables in C are signed by default.
• The unsigned Modifier:
• used to tell the C compiler that no sign bit is needed in the
specified data type.
• Like the signed modifier, the unsigned modifier is
meaningful only to the int and char data types
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• By default, ‘unsigned’ means ‘unsigned int’. 51
 Data Modifiers (contd.)
• The short Modifier:
• A data type can be modified to take less memory by
using the short modifier.
• By default, a short int data type is a signed number.
• %hd, %hi or % hu is to specify that the corresponding
number is a short int or unsigned short int.
• The long modifier:
• It is used to define a data type with increased storage
space.
• The ANSI standard allows you to indicate that a
constant has type long by suffixing l or L to the
constant.
• %ld or %Ld specifies that the corresponding datum is
long int. %lu or %Lu is then used for the long unsigned
int data.
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 Memory map of a C program
Stack

Heap
Global variables

Program code
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 Variables
A variable is a named location in memory that is used to
hold a value that can be modified by the program.

Variables are declared in 3 places:

• inside functions – - local variables.
• in the definition of function
parameters –
}- formal variables

• outside of all functions – - global variables

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 The 4 C scopes:
file scope: Starts at the beginning of the file and ends with
the end of the file. It refers only to those identifiers that
are declared outside of all functions. Variables that have
file scope are global.
block scope: Begins with the opening { of a block & ends
with its associated closing }. However, block scope also
extends to function parameters in a function definition.
Variables with block scope are local to their block.
function prototype scope: Identifiers declared in a function
prototype; visible within the prototype.
function scope: Begins with the opening { of a function &
ends with its closing }. Functions scope applies only to
labels. A label is used as the target of goto statement, and
that label must be within
07/12/21
the same function as the goto.
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 %c character format specifier.
%d Integer format specifier.

The format specifiers

%e scientific notation format specifier.
%E scientific notation format specifier.
%f floating-point format specifier.
%g uses %f or %e, whichever result is shorter.
%G uses %f or %E, whichever result is shorter.
%i integer format specifier (same as %d).
%n records the number of characters written so far.
%o unsigned octal format specifier.
%p displays the corresponding argument that is a pointer.
%s string format specifier.
%u unsigned integer format specifier.
%x unsigned hexadecimal format specifier.
%X unsigned hexadecimal format specifier.
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a percent sign (%). 56
 Type Qualifiers
Type Qualifiers control how variables may be accessed
or modified. C89 defines 2 of these qualifiers:

const: these variables may not be changed by the

program. It will receive its value either from explicit
initialization or by some hardware-dependent means.

volatile: these variables may be changed in ways

not explicitly specified by the program. This qualifier
prevents the compiler from any change relating to
this variable while optimizing.
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 Storage class specifiers
Scope Initial Location Life
value
auto Local to Garbage memory Till control
block remains in block
Register Local to Zero register Till control
block remains in block
Local to Zero memory Persists between
block different function
static calls
extern Global Zero memory Till program exits

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 Control Flow statements
• The if statement
• The if-else statement
• The switch statement
• The break statement
• The continue statement
• The goto statement

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 The if statement
• Used to evaluate the conditions as well as to make the
decision whether the block of code controlled by the
statement is going to be executed.

• The general form of the if statement is

if (expression)
{
statement1;
statement2;
...
}

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 The if-else Statement
• If you want the computer to execute some other
specified statements when the conditional
expression of the if statement is logical FALSE
• if (expression)
{
statement1;
...
}
else
{
statement_A;
…
}
07/12/21 • Nested if statements.
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 The switch Statement
• Used to make (almost) unlimited decisions or choices
based on the value of a conditional expression and
specified cases.
switch (expression)
{
case expression1:
statement1;
case expression2:
statement2;
...
default:
statement-default;
}
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 break & continue

break;
• Break an infinite loop.
• to exit the switch construct after the statements within a
selected case are executed.
continue;
• Instead of breaking a loop, there are times when you
want to stay in a loop but skip over some statements
within the loop. To do this, you can use the continue
statement provided by C. The continue statement
causes execution to jump to the top of the loop
immediately.
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 goto
• The general form is:
statement1;
label: statement2;
...
goto label;
• label is a label name that tells the goto statement where to
jump. You have to place label in 2 places:
– One is at the place where the goto statement is going to jump (note
that a colon must follow the label name),
– and the other is the place following the goto keyword.

• N.B.: break, continue, goto cause your program to be

unreliable and hard to debug.
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 Looping / Iteration

• There are three statements in C designed for looping:

• for statement
• while statement
• do-while statement

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 Looping Under the for statement
for (expression1; expression2; expression3)
{
statement1;
statement2;
...
}
• expression1: initializes one or more variables. Exp1 is only evaluated
once when the for statement is first encountered.
• expression2: is the conditional part. Evaluated right after the
evaluation of exp1 and then is evaluated after each successful looping
by the for statement.
• Expression3: not evaluated when the for statement is first encountered.
Exp3 is evaluated after each looping and before the statement goes
back to test expression2 again.

• The Null Statement:

– for (i=0; i<8; i++);
• Infinite
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– for ( ; ; ) ;
 The while Loop
• Only one expression field in the while statement. The
general form of the while statement is:

while (expression)
{
statement1;
...
}

• The expression is evaluated first. If the expression returns

a nonzero value (normally 1), the looping is done; then the
exp is reevaluated. The process is repeated over and over
until the expression returns 0.
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 The do-while Loop
• The statements controlled by the do-while statement are
executed at least once before the expression is tested.
• The general form for the do-while statement is:
do
{
statement1;
...
}
while (expression);
• N.B.: The ‘do-while’ statement ends with a semicolon,
which is an important distinction from the ‘if’ and ‘while’
statements.

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 Functions in C
• A function definition is always given first, before the function
is called from a main() function.
Declaration vs Definition:
• The declaration of a variable or function specifies the
interpretation and attributes of a set of identifiers.
• The definition requires the C compiler to reserve storage
for a variable or function named by an identifier.
• A variable declaration is a definition, but a function
declaration is not.
Specifying Return Types:
• A function can be declared to return any data type, except
an array or function. The return statement used in a
function definition returns a single value whose type
should match the one declared in the function declaration.
• By default, the return type of a function is int.
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 Functions in C(contd.)

• Using Prototypes:
data_type_specifier function_name
(
data_type_specifier argument_name1,
data_type_specifier argument_name2,
. . .
data_type_specifier argument_nameN
);

• The purpose of using a function prototype is to help the

compiler check whether the data types of arguments
passed to a function match what the function expects. The
compiler issues an error message if the data types do not
match.
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 Functions in C(contd.)
• Functions with No Arguments:
The keyword void is used in the declaration to indicate
to the compiler that no argument is needed by this
function. The compiler will issue an error message if
somehow there is an argument passed to getchar()
later in a program when this function is called.

eg.: int i;
i = rand();
or
int getchar(void);
int c;
c = getchar();
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 Functions in C(contd.)
• Functions with a Fixed Number of Arguments:
int function_1(int x, int y);
• To declare a function with a fixed number of arguments,
you need to specify the data type of each argument.
• It's recommended to indicate the argument names so that
the compiler can have a check to make sure that the
argument types and names declared in a function
declaration match the implementation in the function
definition.

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 Functions in C(contd.)
• Prototyping a Variable Number of Arguments:
• The ellipsis token ... (i.e., three dots) represents a variable
number of arguments

eg.: int printf(const char *format[,

argument, ...]);
int printf(const char *format, ...);

• The first argument name is followed by the ellipsis (...) that

represents the rest of unspecified arguments
– The brackets ([ and ]) indicate that the unspecified
arguments are optional.
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 Functions in C(contd.)
• Processing Variable Arguments:
• There are three routines, declared in the header file
stdarg.h, that enable you to write functions that take a
variable number of arguments.
They are va_start(), va_arg(), and va_end().

• Also included in stdarg.h is a data type, va_list, that

defines an array type suitable for containing data items
needed by va_start(), va_arg(), and
va_end().

• To initialize a given array that is needed by va_arg()

and va_end(), you have to use the va_start()
macro routine before any arguments are processed.
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 #include<stdio.h>
#include <stdarg.h>
int sum(int x, ...);
  main ()
{ int a = 1;
int b = 2;
int c = 3;
int d = 4;
int e = 5;
  printf("Entering 1 argument");
printf("The result returned by sum() is:
%d\n",sum(1,a));
printf("Entering 3 arguments");
printf("The result returned by sum() is:
%d\n",sum(3,a,b,c));
printf("Entering 5 arguments");
printf("The result returned by sum() is:
%d\n",sum(5,a,b,c,d,e));
return 0;
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 int sum(int x, ...)
{
va_list arglist;
int i;
int result = 0;
  printf(“\nThe number of arguments is:
%d\n", x);
va_start (arglist, x);
  for (i=0; i<x; i++)
result += va_arg(arglist,
int);
  va_end (arglist);
return result;
}
• The va_end() function is called after all arguments saved in arglist
have been fetched and processed. Then, the value of result is returned
back to the caller of the sum() function, which is the main() function
in this case.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 76
 Array

• An array is a collection of variables that are of the

same data type. Each item in an array is called an
element. All elements in an array are referenced
by the name of the array and are stored in a set of
consecutive memory slots.
• The general form to declare an array:
data-type Array-Name[Array-Size];
eg. int array_int[8];
• Indexing the Arrays
– all arrays in C are¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨
07/12/21
indexed starting at 0 77
 • Initializing Arrays
– initialize one element in the array.
eg. char day[7];
day[0] = 'S';
– initialize all elements in the array together.
eg. int array[5] = {100, 8, 3, 365, 16};

• The Size of an Array

data-type Array-Name[Array-Size];| int array_name[20];
sizeof(data-type) * Array-Size; | sizeof(int) * 20;
or | or
sizeof(Array-Name); | sizeof(array_name);

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 78
 Strings
• What Is a String? string is a character array terminated
by a null character (\0)
char array_ch[4] = {`H', `i‘, `!',‘\0'};

C treats \0 as one character.

• A series of characters enclosed in double quotes (“ “) is called a
string constant. The C compiler can automatically add a null
character (\0) at the end of a string constant to indicate the end of
the string.

• Initializing Strings:
char arr_str[7] = {`H', `e', `l', `l',
`o', `!', '\0'};
• char str[7] = "Hello!";
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 79
• char str[] = "Hello!";
 Manipulating Strings(contd.)
• String Constants Versus Character Constants:
– Differnce between: char ch = `x';
char str[] = "x";
• String as a char pointer:
char *ptr_str;
ptr_str = "A character string.";
• Multidimensional arrays
C supports multidimensional arrays.
type name[size1][size2]…[sizeN]

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 80
 Manipulating Strings(contd.)
• String Constants Versus Character Constants:
– Difference between: char ch = `x'; 1B
char str[] = "x";
2B

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 81
 An Introduction to
Pointers

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 82
• What Is a Pointer?
A pointer is a variable whose value is used to point to (point
to location of) another variable.
• Address operator ( &) The & is a unary operator that returns
memory address of its operand.
– %p, %u
• Dereference Operator ( * ) this unary operator returns the
value located at the address that follows.

• Never have uninitialised pointers:

It can point to an unknown memory location, which is
dangerous. It may overwrite some important data that is
already saved at the memory location, thus causing a serious
problem. The solution is to make sure that a pointer is
pointing at a legal and valid memory location before it is used.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 83
 Pointer Arithmetic
The position of a pointer can be changed by adding or subtracting
integers to or from the pointer.
pointer_name + n;
• It indicates to the compiler to move to the memory location that is ‘n’
memory locations away from the current position of pointer_name.
• ‘n’ is an integer whose value can be either positive or negative.
• When the C compiler reads the pointer_name + n expression, it
interprets the expression as
pointer_name + n * sizeof(data_type_specifier)
• Pointer Subtraction
For two pointers of the same type, you can subtract one
pointer value from the other. For instance, given two char
pointer variables, ptr_str1 and ptr_str2, you can calculate the
offset between the two memory locations pointed to by the
two pointers like this:
07/12/21
ptr_str2 - ptr_str1
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 84
 Arrays and Pointers
• We can make a pointer that refers to the first
element of an array by simply assigning the array
name to the pointer variable.
– A pointer is said to refer to an array when the address of the first
element in the array is assigned to the pointer. The address of the
first element in an array is also called the start address of the array.
– To assign the start address of an array to a pointer, you can either
put the combination of the address-of operator (&) and the first
element name of the array, or simply use the array name, on the
right side of an assignment operator (=).
• Displaying Arrays of Characters

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 85
 Arrays and Pointers(contd.)
• The Null Character (\0)
– A character array is considered a character string in C if
the last element in the array contains a null character
(\0).
• Multidimensional Arrays
• Unsized Arrays
– The compiler can automatically calculate the memory
space needed by an unsized array.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 86
 Pointers and Arrays
• Accessing Arrays via Pointers:
An array name that is not followed by a subscript is
interpreted as a pointer to the first element of the array.
• You can assign the start address of the array to a pointer of the
same data type; then you can access any element in the array
by adding a proper integer to the pointer. The value of the
integer is the same as the subscript value of the element that
you want to access.
int list[] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
int *ptr_int;
ptr_int = list;
then,
*(ptr_int + 2) = -3; || list[2] = -3;
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 87
 Pointers and Functions
• Passing Arrays to Functions:
One way to save the number of arguments passed to a
function is to use arrays. You can put all variables of the
same type into an array, and then pass the array as a single
argument.
void function(int list[]);
void main()
{
int array[] = {1,2,3,4,5};
function(array);
}
void function(int list[])
{
int i;
for(i=0; i<6; i++) printf(“\n\t%d”,list[i]);
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 88
 Pointers and Functions
• Passing Arrays to Functions:
One way to save the number of arguments passed to a function
is to use arrays. You can put all variables of the same type
into an array, and then pass the array as a single argument.
void function(int list[]);
void main()
{
int array[] = {1,2,3,4,5};
function(array);
}
void function(int list[])
{
int i;
for(i=0; i<6; i++) printf(“\n\t%d”,list[i]);
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 89
 Pointers and Functions
• Passing Pointers to Functions:
An array name that is not followed by a subscript is interpreted as
a pointer to the first element of the array. The address of the first
element in an array is the start address of the array. Hence, you
can assign the start address of an array to a pointer, and then pass
the pointer name, instead of the unsized array, to a function.
void chprint(char *ptr);
void main()
{
char array[] = {"\nIts time for a break!!!"};
char *ch_ptr;
ch_ptr = array;
chprint(ch_ptr);
}
void chprint(char *ptr)
{
printf("\n%s",ptr);
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 90
 Pointers and Functions
• Passing Pointers to Functions:
An array name that is not followed by a subscript is interpreted as
a pointer to the first element of the array. The address of the first
element in an array is the start address of the array. Hence, you
can assign the start address of an array to a pointer, and then pass
the pointer name, instead of the unsized array, to a function.
void chprint(char *ptr);
void main() Variable name not
{ necessary, can be
char array[] = {"\nIts time for a break!!!"};
char *ch_ptr;
different.
ch_ptr = array;
chprint(ch_ptr);
}
void chprint(char *ptr)
{
printf("\n%s",ptr);
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 91
 Pointers and Functions(contd.)

• Passing Multidimensional Arrays as Arguments:

• Passing a multidimensional array to a function is similar to
passing a one-dimensional array to a function.
• Pass the unsized format of a multidimensional array or a
pointer that contains the start address of the multidimensional
array to a function.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 92
 Pointers and Functions(contd.)
• Arrays of Pointers:
data_type_specifier *pointer_name[size];
eg. int *ptr_int[9];
void strprint(char **str1, int size) ;
main()
{
char *str[3] = {“\nba-ba", “ black", “
sheep”};
int i, size = 3;
strprint (str, size); }
void strprint(char **str1, int size)
{ int i;
for (i=0; i<size; i++) /* Print all
strings in an array of
pointers to trings */
printf("%s", str1[i]);
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 93
 Pointing to Functions
#include <stdio.h>
int StrPrint(char *str);/*function declaration */
main()
{
char str[24] = "Pointing to a function.";
int (*ptr)(char *str);
ptr = StrPrint;
if (!(*ptr)(str)) printf("Done!\n");
return 0;
}
int StrPrint(char *str) /* function definition */
{
printf("%s\n", str);
return 0;
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 94
C’s Dynamic Allocation Functions
Allocating Memory at Runtime:
When you do not know the exact sizes of arrays used in
your programs, until much later when your programs
are actually being executed.
– malloc() function
– calloc() function
– realloc() function
– free() function

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 95
 Allocating Memory(contd.)
• The malloc() Function:
• The malloc() function to allocate a specified size of
memory space.
• The syntax for the malloc() function is
#include <stdlib.h>
void *malloc(size_t size);
Here size indicates the number of bytes of storage to
allocate.
• The malloc() function returns a void pointer.
• If the malloc() function fails to allocate a piece of
memory space, it returns a null pointer.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 96
 Allocating Memory(contd.)
• Releasing Allocated Memory with free():
Because memory is a limited resource, you should
allocate an exactly sized piece of memory right
before you need it, and release it as soon as you
don't need it.
ptr_int = malloc(max * sizeof(int));
/* call malloc() */
…
…
free(ptr_int);

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 97
 Allocating Memory(contd.)
• The calloc() Function:
– The differences between malloc() and calloc() are
that the latter takes two arguments and that the memory
space allocated by calloc() is always initialized to 0.
There is no such guarantee that the memory space
allocated by malloc() is initialized to 0.
– The syntax for the calloc() function is
#include <stdlib.h>
void *calloc(size_t nitem, size_t size);
– Here nitem is the number of items you want to save in the
allocated memory space. size gives the number of bytes
that each item takes. The calloc() function returns a
void pointer too.
– If the calloc() function fails to allocate a piece of
memory space, it returns a null pointer.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 98
 Allocating Memory(contd.)*
• The realloc() Function:
• The realloc() function gives you a means to change the
size of a piece of memory space allocated by the malloc()
function, the calloc() function, or even itself.
• The syntax for the realloc() function is
#include <stdlib.h>
void *realloc(void *block, size_t size);
• Here block is the pointer to the start of a piece of memory
space previously allocated. size specifies the total byte
number you want to change to.
• The realloc() function returns a void pointer.
• The realloc() function returns a null pointer if it fails to
reallocate a piece of memory space.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 99
 More Data Types and Functions

• The enum data type

• The typedef statement
• Function recursion
• Command-line arguments

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 100

 The enum data type*
• enum is short for enumerated.
• The enumerated data type can be used to declare named integer
constants. The enum data type makes the C program more readable
and easier to maintain.
• The general form of the enum data type declaration is:
enum tag_name {enumeration_list}variable_list;
enum idols{mickey, minnie, goofy, pluto};
• By default, the integer value associated with the leftmost name in the
enumeration list field, surrounded by the braces ({ and }), starts with
0, and the value of each name in the rest of the list increases by one
from left to right.
• Assigning Values to enum Names
enum days{SUN=1,MON,TUE,WED,THU,FRI,SAT};
enum
07/12/21{ohms=7,farads=9,henry=13,coulomb};
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 101
 Making typedef Definitions
• Used to create our own names for data types, and make
those name synonyms for the data types.
typedef int TWO_BYTE;
• A typedef definition must be made before the synonym
created in the definition is used in any declarations in your
program.
• Why Use typedef?
– It consolidates complex data types into a single word
and then use the word in variable declarations in your
program.
– We just need to update a typedef definition, which
fixes every use of that typedef definition if the data
type is changed in the future.
– It makes code portable to any platform.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 102
 Recursive Functions*
• A function can call itself from a statement inside the
body of the function itself. Such a function is said to
be recursive.
#include<stdio.h>
long int fact(int n)
{ long int temp;
if(n==0) temp = 1;
else temp = n * fact(n-1);
return temp;
}
void main(void)
{ int f;
printf(“\nEnter the no.”);
scanf(“%d”,&f);
printf(“The factorial of %d is %ld”,f,fact(f));
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 103
 Command-Line Arguments*
• A command-line argument is a parameter that follows a program's name
when the program is invoked from the operating system's command line.
• Receiving Command-Line Arguments
– There are two built-in arguments in the main() function that
can be used to receive command-line arguments. Usually,
the name of the first argument is argc, and it is used to
store the number of arguments on the command line. The
second argument is called argv and is a pointer to an array
of char pointers. Each element in the array of pointers
points to a command-line argument that is treated as a
string.
data_type_specifier main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
. . .
}
argc and argv are normally used as the two built-in arguments in the main()
function, but you can use other names to replace them in their declarations.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 104
 Q&A
• Q1 Does a recursive function help to
improve the performance of a program?
• Q2 What is the first command-line
argument passed to a main() function?

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 105

 Collecting Data Items of Different
Types*
• What Is a Structure?
• Arrays can be used to collect groups of variables of the same
type. A structure collects different data items in such a way
that they can be referenced as a single unit.
• The general form to declare a structure is
struct struct_tag
{
data_type1 variable1;
data_type2 variable2;
. . .
} structure variable1, …, structure variableN;

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 106

 Structure(contd.)*

• Referencing Structure Members with the Dot Operator:

• structure name and its member's name are separated by
the dot (.) operator to reference members of a structure.

• Structures and Function Calls:

• The C language allows you to pass an entire structure to a
function. In addition, a function can return a structure
back to its caller.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 107

 Structure(contd.)*
• Pointing to Structures
– passing a pointer of a structure to a function is simply
passing the address that associates the structure to the
function. The function can then use the address to access the
structure members without duplicating the structure.
Therefore, it's more efficient to pass a pointer of a structure,
rather than the structure itself, to a function.
• Referencing a Structure Member with ->
– You can use the arrow operator -> to refer to a structure
member with a pointer that points to the structure.
s1 -> age or (*ptr_s).age
&(*ptr_s).age or &(ptr_s->age)
– Because of its clearness, the -> operator is more frequently
07/12/21 used in programs than the dot operator
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 108
 Structure(contd.)*
• Arrays of Structures:
• You can declare an array of a structure by preceding the array
name with the structure name.
• Nested Structures:
– A structure is called a nested structure when one of the
members of the structure is itself a structure.
• Forward-Referencing Structures :
– If one of the members of a structure is a pointer pointing to
another structure that has not been declared yet, the
structure is called a forward-referencing structure.
– If the pointer in a structure points to the structure itself, the
structure is called a self-referencing structure.

– Don't include forward references in a typedef statement. It's not

legal in C.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 109
 Q&A
• Q Why is it more efficient to pass a pointer
that refers to a structure to a function?

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 110

 Unions: Another Way to Collect Dissimilar Data
• What Is a Union?
A union is a block of memory that is used to hold data items
of different types. A union is similar to a structure, except
that data items saved in the union are overlaid in order to
share the same memory location.

• Declaring Unions
union union_tag
{
data_type1 variable1;
data_type2 variable2;
...
} union variable1, …, union variableN;
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 111
 Unions(contd.)
• Defining Union Variables:
Union variables can be defined after declaring a union.
union | union uni_name
{ | {
int a; | int a;
char c[10]; | char c[10];
float f; | float f;
}name1, name2; | };
| union uni_name name1,name2;
• Referring a Union with . or ->
The dot operator (.) can be used in referencing union members.
The arrow operator (->)is used to reference the union member
year with the pointer ptr.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 112
 Unions(contd.)*
• Initializing a Union:
• The memory location of a union is shared by different
members of the union at different times. The size of a union
is equal to the size of the largest data item in the list of the
union members, which is large enough to hold any members
of the union, one at a time.
• Therefore, it does not make sense to initialize all members of
a union together because the value of the latest initialized
member overwrites the value of the preceding member.
• Initialize a member of a union only when you are ready to
use it. The value contained by a union is the value that is
latest assigned to a member of the union.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 113

 Unions(contd.)*
#include <stdio.h>
union u
{
char ch[2];
int num;
};
int UnionInitialize(union u val);

main(void)
{
union u val; int x;
x = UnionInitialize(val);
printf("The 2 character constants held by the
union:\n");
printf("%c\n", x & 0x00FF); printf("%c\n", x >> 8);
return 0;
}
int UnionInitialize(union u val)/*function definition*/
{val.ch[0] = `H'; val.ch[1] = `i'; return val.num;}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 114
 Unions(contd.)
There are 2 kinds of union applications:

• Referencing the Same Memory Location Differently:

• Making Structures Flexible:
– The second application of unions is to nest a union
inside a structure so that the structure can hold different
types of values.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 115

 Defining Bit Fields with struct

• With the help of the struct keyword, we can declare a smaller

object—a bit field—which allows you to access a single bit.
A bit is able to hold one of the two values, 1 or 0.
• The general form to declare and define bit fields is:

struct tag_name
{
data_type name1: length1;
data_type name2: lenght2;
. . .
data_type nameN: lengthN;
} variable_list;
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 116
 Q&A
• Q. What will happen if you initialize all
members of a union together?
• Q. Can you access the same memory
location with different union members?

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 117

 Reading from and Writing to
Standard I/O
• There are 3 file streams that are pre-opened
• Stdin – The std i/p for reading – keyboard.
• Stdout – The std o/p for writing – monitor.
• Stderr – The std error for writing error messages.
• Getting the Input from the User
• getc()
• getchar()
• Printing the Output on the Screen
• putc()
• putchar()

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 118

 Disk File Input and Output*
• The C language provides a set of rich library functions to perform input
and output (I/O) operation. Those functions can read or write any type of
data to files.

• What Is a File?
A file represents a concrete device(a disk file, a terminal, a
printer, or a tape drive) with which you want to exchange
information. Before you perform any communication to a file,
you have to open the file. Then you need to close the opened
file after you finish exchanging information with it.

• What Is a Stream?
The data flow you transfer from your program to a file, or
vice versa, is called a stream, which is a series of bytes. To
perform I/O operations, you can read from or write to any
type of files by simply associating a stream to the file.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 119
 The Basics of Disk File I/O*
• Pointers of FILE
A pointer of type FILE is called a file pointer, which references
a disk file. A file pointer is used by a stream to conduct the
operation of the I/O functions.
Eg., the following defines a file pointer called fptr:
FILE *fptr;

• Opening a File:
fopen() gives you the ability to open a file and associate a
stream to the opened file. You need to specify the way to open a
file and the filename with the fopen() function. The syntax
for the fopen() function is:

#include <stdio.h>
FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode);
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 120
• Opening a File(contd.):*
The fopen() function returns a pointer of type FILE. If an
error occurs during the procedure to open a file, the fopen()
function returns a null pointer.

• The following list shows the possible ways to open a file by various strings
of modes:
"r" opens an existing text file for reading.
"w" creates a text file for writing.
"a" opens an existing text file for appending.
"r+" opens an existing text file for reading or writing.
"w+" creates a text file for reading or writing.
"a+" opens or creates a text file for appending.
"rb" an existing binary file for reading.
"wb" creates a binary file for writing.
"ab" opens an existing binary file for appending.
"r+b" opens an existing binary file for reading or writing.
"w+b" creates a binary file for reading or writing.
"a+b"
07/12/21 opens or creates a binary file for appending.
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 121
• Closing a File:
After a disk file is read, written, or appended with
some new data, you have to disassociate the file
from a specified stream by calling the fclose()
function.
The syntax for the fclose() function is
#include <stdio.h>
int fclose(FILE *stream);
If fclose() closes a file successfully, it returns
0. Otherwise, the function returns EOF.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 122

 #include <stdio.h>
main(void)
{
FILE *fptr;
char filename[]= “hydra.txt";
if ((fptr = fopen(filename, “a")) == NULL)
{
printf("Cannot open %s.\n", filename);
}
else
{
printf("The value of fptr: 0x%p\n", fptr);
printf("Ready to close the file.");
fclose(fptr);
}
return reval;
}
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 123
 Reading and Writing Disk Files*
• Read or write one character at a time:
fgetc() and fputc(), can be used to read from or write to a disk
file one character at a time.
The syntax for the fgetc() function is:
#include <stdio.h>
int fgetc(FILE *stream);
The fgetc() function fetches the next character from the
stream specified by stream.
The syntax for the fputc() function is:
#include <stdio.h>
int fputc(int c, FILE *stream);
Here c is an int value that represents a character. The fputc()
function returns the character written if the function is successful;
otherwise, it returns EOF. After a character is written, the
fputc()function advances
07/12/21
the associated file pointer.
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 124
 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)

• One Line at a Time:

fgets() and fputs(), allows to read or write one character line
at time.
The syntax for the fgets() function is:

#include <stdio.h>
char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream);

If it is successful, the fgets() function returns the char

pointer s. If EOF is encountered, the fgets() function
returns a null pointer and leaves the array untouched. If an
error occurs, the function returns a null pointer, and the
contents of the array are
07/12/21
unknown.
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 125
 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)

• One Line at a Time:

The syntax for the fputs() function is

#include <stdio.h>
int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream);

fputs() copies the null-terminated string s to the given

output string . It does not append a newline character and the
terminating null character is not copied.

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 Reading and Writing Disk Files(contd.)
• One Block at a Time:
fread() and fwrite() can be used to perform block I/O
operations.
The syntax for the fread() function is:
include <stdio.h>
size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size,size_t n,
FILE *stream);
• The fread() function returns the number of elements
actually read.
• The number of elements read by the fread() function should
be equal to the value specified by the third argument to the
function, unless an error occurs or an EOF (end-of-file) is
encountered.
• The fread() function returns the number of elements that
are actually read, if an ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨
07/12/21
error occurs or an EOF is encountered.
127
 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
• One Block at a Time:
• The syntax for the fwrite() function is
#include <stdio.h>
size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t n, FILE *stream);

• Here ptr references the array that contains the data to be

written to an opened file pointed to by the file pointer stream.
size indicates the size of each element in the array. The
fwrite() function returns the number of elements actually
written.
• If there is no error occurring, the number returned by
fwrite() should be the same as the third argument in the
function. The return value may be less than the specified
value if an error occurs.
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Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)

• feof() can be used to determine when the end of a file is

encountered. If you determine the end of a binary file by
checking the value returned by fread(), you may end
up at the wrong position. Using the feof() function helps
you to avoid mistakes in determining the end of a file.
The syntax for the feof() function is
#include <stdio.h>
int feof(FILE *stream);
• Here stream is the file pointer that is associated with an
opened file. The feof() function returns 0 if the end of
the file has not been reached; otherwise, it returns a
nonzero integer.

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 Q&A
Q1. What are high-level I/O and low-level I/O ?
Which one is better?
Q2. When does fclose() fail ?
Q3. What is the difference between fgets() and
gets()?
Q4. Why do you need a file pointer?

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 Minimum Field Width Specifier

• Adding the Minimum Field Width

%nd
• Aligning Output
%-nd
• Using the Precision specifier
%n.mf

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Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
• Random Access to Disk Files:
• fseek() and ftell() functions enable us to access
files randomly.
• The fseek() function to move the file position indicator to the
spot you want to access in a file.

• The syntax for the fseek() function is:

#include <stdio.h>
int fseek(FILE *stream,longoffset,int
whence);

• fseek() is used with stream I/O. After fseek(), the next

operation on an update¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨
07/12/21
file can be either input or output.132
 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
Random Access to Disk Files:

• To obtain the value of the current file position indicator by

calling the ftell() function. The syntax for the ftell()
function is:

#include <stdio.h>
long ftell(FILE *stream);

• The ftell() function returns the current value of the file

position indicator.
• The value returned by the ftell() function represents the
number of bytes from the beginning of the file to the current
position pointed to by the file position indicator.
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 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
Random Access to Disk Files:

• The rewind() Function:

Used to reset the file position indicator and put it at the
beginning of a file.

The syntax for the rewind() function is:

#include <stdio.h>
void rewind(FILE *stream);

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 134

Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)

• fscanf() and fprintf() Functions

• fscanf() and fprintf(), these C disk file I/O
functions, can do the same jobs as the scanf() and
printf() functions.
• fscanf() and fprintf() functions allow the
programmer to specify I/O streams.

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 Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
• The syntax for the fscanf() function is:
#include <stdio.h>
int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char
*format, …);
– If successful, the fscanf() function returns the number of data
items read. Otherwise, the function returns EOF.

• The syntax for the fprintf() function is

#include <stdio.h>
int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char
*format, …);
– If successful, the fprintf() function returns the number of
formatted expressions. Otherwise, the function returns a negative
07/12/21 value. ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 136
Reading and Writing Disk Files*(contd.)
• Redirecting the Standard Streams with freopen():
• freopen() is used to redirect the standard
streams, such as stdin and stdout, to disk files.
• The syntax for the freopen() function is
#include <stdio.h>
FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const
char *mode, FILE *stream);

filename is a char pointer referencing the name of a file

that you want to associate with the standard stream
represented by stream.
The freopen() function returns a null pointer if an error
occurs. Otherwise, the function returns the standard stream
that has been associated with a disk file identified by
filename.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 137
 Q&A
• Q1. Can you switch off the buffering of I/O
devices?
• Q2. What is the difference between the
printf() and fprintf()
functions?

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 138

 The C Preprocessor*
• What Is the C Preprocessor?
• A symbolic name to the constant:
– program will be more readable.
– easier to maintain your program.
• To include other source files:
– The C preprocessor enables you to compile different
sections of your program under specified conditions.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 139

 The C Preprocessor vs. the Compiler
• The C preprocessor is not part of the C compiler.

• The C preprocessor uses a different syntax. All directives

in the C preprocessor begin with a pound sign (#).

• The C preprocessor is line oriented. Each macro statement

ends with a newline character, not a semicolon. (Only C
statements end with semicolons.)
• One of the most common mistakes made by the
programmer is to place a semicolon at the end of a macro
statement. Fortunately, many C compilers can catch such
errors.
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The #define and #undef Directives
• #define directive tells the preprocessor to replace every
occurrence of a particular character string (that is, a macro
name) with a specified value (that is, a macro body).
• The syntax for the #define directive is:
#define macro_name macro_body

• #undef directive to remove the definition of a macro

name that has been previously defined.
• The syntax for the #undef directive is:
#undef macro_name

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 141

 Defining Function-Like Macros with
#define

• Specify one or more arguments to a macro name

defined by the #define directive, so that the macro
name can be treated like a simple function that accepts
arguments.

#define MULTIPLY(val1, val2) (val1)*(val2))

. . .
. . .
result = MULTIPLY(2, 3) + 10;

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 Nested Macro Definitions
• A previously defined macro can be used as
the value in another #define statement.
The following is an example:
#define ONE 1
#define TWO (ONE + ONE)
#define THREE (ONE + TWO)
. . .
result = TWO * THREE;

When you are using the #define directive with a

macro body that is an expression, you need to enclose
the macro body in parentheses.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 143
Compiling Your Code Under Conditions
• You can select portions of your C program that you want
to compile by using a set of preprocessor directives. This
is useful, especially when you're testing a piece of new
code or debugging a portion of code.

• The #ifdef and #endif directives control

whether a given group of statements is to be
included as part of your program.

07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 144

 The #ifdef and #endif Directives

• The general form to use the #ifdef and #endif directives is:
#ifdef macro_name
statement1
Statement
. . .
statementN
#endif

Here macro_name is any character string that can be

defined by a #define directive. statement1,..,N are
statements that are included in the program if macro_name
has been defined. If macro_name has not been defined,
statement1,…,N are skipped.
07/12/21 ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 145
 The #ifndef Directive
• The #ifndef directive enables you to define code that is to be
executed when a particular macro name is not defined.

The general format to use #ifndef is the same as for #ifdef:

#ifndef macro_name
statement1
statement2
. . .
statementN
#endif

Here macro_name, statement1,…,N have the same meanings

as those in the form of #ifdef introduced in the previous
section. Again, the #endif directive is needed to mark the end
of the #ifndef block.¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨
07/12/21 146
 The #if, #elif, and #else Directives
• The #if directive specifies that certain statements are to
be included only if the value represented by the
conditional expression is nonzero. The conditional
expression can be an arithmetic expression.
• The general form to use the #if directive is:
#if expression
statement1
statement2
...
statementN
#endif
The #endif directive is included at the end of the
definition to mark the end
07/12/21 of the #if block.
¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨ 147
 The #if, #elif, and #else Directives
#if expression
statement1
statement2
. . .
statementN
#else
statement_1
statement_2
. . .
statement_N
#endif

Nested Conditional Compilation

According to the ANSI C standard, the #if and #elif
directives can be nested ¨˜”°º•Calypso•º°”˜¨
07/12/21 at least 8 levels. 148