Chapter 1

File Systems and

Databases

Database
A database is a collection of related
data or operational data extracted from
any firm or organization. For example,
consider the names, telephone number, and
address of people you know. You may have
recorded this data in an indexed address book,
or you may have stored it on a diskette, using
a personal computer and software such
as Microsoft Access of MS Office or
ORACLE, SQL SERVER etc.
2

Examples of Use of Database

Systems

Banks

Travel Agents

Scientific Data Collection

3

Introducing the Database

Major Database Concepts

Data and information
Data - Raw facts
Information - Processed data
Data management
Database
Metadata (=Data about data)
Database management system (DBMS)
4

Introducing the Database

Database management system (DBMS)

DBMS is the software that interacts with the users,

application programs, and the database. Example : IBM DB2,
Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL etc.

Data

DBMS

Application
Programs

Introducing the Database

Importance of DBMS
It helps make data management more
efficient and effective.
It provides end users better access to
more and better-managed data.
It promotes an integrated view of
organizations operations -- big picture.
It reduces the probability of inconsistent
data.
6

The DBMS Manages the Interaction

Between the End User and the Database

Introducing the Database

The Importance of Database Design
A well-designed database facilitates
data management and becomes a
valuable information generator.
A poorly designed database is a
breeding ground for uncontrolled data
redundancies.
A poorly designed database generates
errors that lead to bad decisions.

Basic File Terminology

Data

Raw facts that have little meaning unless

they have been organized in some logical
manner.

Field

A character or group of characters

(alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific
meaning. A field might define a telephone
numbers, a birth date, a customer name, a
year-to-date (YTD) sales value, and so on.

Record

A logically connected set of one or more

fields that describes a person, place, or
thing.

File

A collection of related records.

9

Common Data Elements

(concept of fields, records, and
files)

Field an

Student File
Id No.
1100
1200
1300
1400
Record
1500
all data about
one occurrence
of the entity
(collection of related
fields)

Name
Ali
Bobby
Clement
David
Evelyn

Faculty
FIT
FIT
FCM
FCM
FOE

Major
SE
MIS
MM
MM
CE

File set of data describing all

occurrences of the entity
(collection of related records)

individual
characteristic
or attribute

Basic File Terminology

Data Model - A collection of concepts that
can be used to describe the structure of
database.
Database instance Separate location of
memory reserved for running a specific
database
Database Schema - the description of a
database, which is specified during
database design and is not expected to
change frequently.
11

A Simple File System

12

File System
FileCritique
System Data Management
File systems require extensive programming
in a third-generation language (3GL).
As the number of files expands, system
administration becomes difficult.
Making changes in existing file structures is
important and difficult.
Security features to safeguard data are
difficult to program and usually omitted.
Difficulty to pool data creates islands of
information.

13

File System
Critique

Structural and Data Dependence

Structural Dependence
A change in any files structure requires the
modification of all programs using that file.
Data Dependence
A change in any files data characteristics
requires changes in all data access
programs.
Significance of data dependence is the
difference between the data logical format
and the data physical format.
14

File System
Critique

Field Definitions and Naming Conventions

A good (flexible) record definition
anticipates reporting requirements by
breaking up fields into their components.
Example:
Customer Name --> Last Name, First
Name, Initial
Customer Address --> Street
Address, City, State

15

File System
Critique

Field Definitions and Naming Conventions

Selecting proper field names is very
important.

Names must be as descriptive as

possible within restrictions.

Naming must reflect designers

documentation needs and users
reporting and processing
requirements.

16

File System
Critique
FIELD

CONTENTS

CUS_LNAME

Customer last name

CUS_FNAME

Customer first name

CUS_INITIAL

Customer initial

CUS_AREACODE

Customer area code

CUS_PHONE

Customer phone

CUS_ADDRESS

Customer street address or box number

CUS_CITY

Customer city

CUS_STATE

Customer state
17

File System
Critique

Data Redundancy:
Uncontrolled data redundancy sets the
stage for
Data Inconsistency (lack of data integrity)
Data anomalies

Modification anomalies

Insertion anomalies

Deletion anomalies
18

Database
Systems

The Database System Components

Hardware
Computer
Peripherals
Software
Operating systems software
DBMS software
Applications programs and
utilities software
19

Database
Systems

The Database System Components

People
Systems administrators (SA)
Database administrators (DBAs) / Owner (Dbo)
Database designers
Systems analysts and programmers
End users
Procedures (sp)
Instructions and rules that govern the design and
use of the database system
Data
Collection of facts stored in the database
20

Database
Systems

The Database System Components

The complexity of database systems
depends on various organizational factors:

Organizations size

Organizations function

Organizations corporate culture

Organizational activities and environment

Database solutions must be cost effective

AND strategically effective.
21

Database
Systems

Types of Database Systems

Number of Users
Single-user
Desktop database
Multiuser
Workgroup database
Enterprise database
Scope/limitation
Desktop
Workgroup
Enterprise
22

Database
Systems
The types of Database Systems
Location
Centralized Database
Distributed Database
Use
Transactional (Production)
Decision support
Data warehouse

23

Database
Systems
DBMS Functions
1.Data Dictionary Management
2.Data Storage Management
3.Data Transformation and Presentation
4.Security Management
5.Multi-User Access Control
6.Backup and Recovery Management
7.Data Integrity Management
8.Database Access Languages (DDL and DML) and
Application Programming Interfaces
9.Database Communication Interfaces
24

Database Models

A database model is a collection of logical

constructs used to represent the data structure
and the data relationships found within the
database.

Two Categories of Database Models

Conceptual models focus on the logical nature of
the data representation. They are concerned
with what is represented rather than how it is
represented.
Implementation models place the emphasis on
how the data are represented in the database or
on how the data structures are implemented.
25

Database Models
Three Types of Relationships
One-to-many relationships (1:M)
A painter paints many different paintings, but each
one of them is painted by only that painter.
PAINTER (1) paints PAINTING (M)
Many-to-many relationships (M:N)
An employee might learn many job skills, and each
job skill might be learned by many employees.
EMPLOYEE (M) learns SKILL (N)
One-to-one relationships (1:1)
Each store is managed by a single employee and
each store manager (employee) only manages a
single store.
EMPLOYEE (1) manages STORE (1)
26

Database Models
Three Types of Implementation
Database Models
Hierarchical database model
Network database model
Relational database model

27

Hierarchical Database
Models

Hierarchical Database Model

Basic Structure
Collection of records logically organized to
conform to the upside-down tree (hierarchical)
structure.
The top layer is perceived as the parent of the
segment directly beneath it.
The segments below other segments are the
children of the segment above them.
A tree structure is represented as a hierarchical
path on the computers storage media.
28

Types of Database Data Models Hierarchical

The first database systems developed were
hierarchical
Databases using the hierarchical model
use physical pointers to link records

Pointer Based
Linkages Between
Entities
Location
P10
P11
P12

Prof#
J13
M7
D23

Name
Jones
Morgen
Davis

Location Stud#
P200
P201
P202
P203
P204
P205
P206
P207

1234
4678
2943
1874
4017
2318
6021
5503

Office#
SB312
BA218
SB 106

S_name
Smith
Davis
Evans
Allen
Lloyd
Marx
Keen
Watts

Class
Standing
Fr
So
Fr
Jr
Fr
Sr
So
Jr

1st Student
P203
P200
P201

Next
Prof_Stud
P202
P204
P206
P205
*
P207
*
*

Pointers
give
the
physical location of a
related set of data, the
location values
(P10, P201, etc.) in our
example are meant to
represent this type of
physical location. Real
pointers usually
indicate a displacement
in a file. Instead of the
P203 value in the first
professor record
we would see an
indicator
that
the
related data begins at
30
the 4028th byte of the
file that stores student

Pointer Based Linkages

Between Entities
Location
P10
P11
P12

Location
P200
P201
P202
P203
P204
P205
P206
P207

Prof# Name Office#

J13
M7
D23

Jones SB312
Morgen BA218
Davis SB 106

Class
Standin
Stud#
S_name g
1234 Smith
Fr
4678 Davis
So
2943 Evans Fr
1874 Allen
Jr
4017 Lloyd
Fr
2318 Marx
Sr
6021 Keen
So
5503 Watts
Jr

1st Student
P203
P200
P201

Next
Prof_Stud
P202
P204
P206
P205
*
P207
*
*

31

Types of Database Data Models Hierarchical

The first database systems developed were
hierarchical
Databases using the hierarchical model
use physical pointers to link records
allow only hierarchical relationships

Hierarchical
A hierarchical relationship
is one where each entity at
a lower level of the
hierarchy is related to only
one type of entity at a
higher level of the
hierarchy (a higher level
entity can be linked to two
or more lower level child
entities)

A
B

33

Types of Database Data

Models - Hierarchical
The first database systems developed were hierarchical
Databases using the hierarchical model
use physical pointers to link records
allow only hierarchical relationships
+Hierarchical databases provide very efficient highspeed retrieval
They are difficult to modify as an organizations
data needs change
It is difficult to use them to represent nonhierarchical relationships
(essentially you must create multiple linked
hierarchical databases in order to represent
network relationships)

Types of Database Data

Models - Network
The next type of data model developed was the network model
Databases using the Network model
use physical pointers to link records - like the
hierarchical model
do support network as well as hierarchical relationships
+Network databases provide very efficient high-speed
retrieval
+Can represent network, as well as, hierarchical
relationships easily
Are difficult to modify as an organizations data needs
change
Have complex pointer structures which can be difficult
to manipulate and hard for end-users to understand.

35

Network Relationships
A network relationship is one in
which an entity at a lower level
can be linked to two or more
entities at a higher level.
E.G. - an order is related to
both a customer who placed it
and a salesperson who made
the sale
The hierarchical model does not
support network relationships.
To capture them a second
database would have to be
created and linked to the first.

C
A

36

Types of Database Data Models Relational

Relational Database Model
Basic Structure
RDBMS allows operations in a human logical
environment.
The relational database is perceived as a
collection of tables.
Each table consists of a series of row/column
intersections.
Tables (or relations) are related to each
other by sharing a common entity
characteristic.
The relationship type is often shown in a
relational schema.
A table yields complete data and structural
independence.
37

Repetition of Identifying
Data to Link Related Data
Prof#
J13
M7
D23
Stud#

1234
4678
2943
1874
4017
2318
6021
5503

Name
Jones
Morgen
Davis

Office#
SB312
BA218
SB 106

S_name

Class
Standing

Prof#

Smith
Davis
Evans
Allen
Lloyd
Marx
Keen
Watts

Fr
So
Fr
Jr
Fr
Sr
So
Jr

M7
D23
M7
J13
D23
J13
M7
J13

38

Linking Relational Tables

39

Relational Database
Model

- Advantages
Structural independence
Improved conceptual simplicity
Easier database design, implementation,
management, and use
Ad hoc query capability (SQL)
Powerful database management system

Disadvantages
Substantial hardware and system software overhead
Possibility of poor design and implementation
Potential islands of information problems

40

A Relational Schema

41

Entity-Relationship Data
Model
Entity-Relationship Data Model
It is one of the most widely
accepted graphical data modeling
tools.
It graphically represents data as
entities and their relationships in
a database structure.
It complements the relational data
model concepts.
42

Entity-Relationship Data
Model
Entity Relationship Data Model
Basic Structure
E-R models are normally represented in
an entity relationship diagram (ERD).
An entity is represented by a rectangle.
Each entity is described by a set of
attributes. An attribute describes a
particular characteristics of the entity.
A relationship is represented by a
diamond connected to the related
entities.

43

The ER Diagram

Complements the relational data model concepts

Represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD)
Based on entities, attributes, and relationships

44

Entity-Relationship Data
Model

Entity-Relationship Data Model

Advantages

Exceptional conceptual simplicity

Visual representation
Effective communication tool
Integrated with the relational database model
Disadvantages
Limited constraint representation
Limited relationship representation
No data manipulation language
Loss of information content
45

Types of Database Data

Models - Object Oriented
Object-Oriented Database Model
Basic Structure
Objects are abstractions of real-world entities or events.
Attributes describe the properties of an object.
Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in
classes.
A class is a collection of similar objects with shared
structure (attributes) and behavior (methods).
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy.
An object can inherit the attributes and methods of the
classes above it.

46

Types of Database Data

Models
Object
Oriented
Object-Oriented Database Model
Characteristics
An object is described by its factual
content.
An object includes information about
relationships between the facts within
the object, as well as with other
objects.
An object is a self-contained building
block for autonomous structures.
47

Types of Database Data

Models
Object
Oriented
Object-Oriented Database Model
Advantages
Add semantic content
Visual presentation includes semantic content
Database integrity
Both structural and data independence
Disadvantages
Lack of OODM standards
Complex navigational data access
Steep learning curve
High system overhead slows transactions
48

A Comparison: The OO Data Model and

the ER Model

49

Centralized Versus Decentralized

Database Systems
Centralized Database with remote Access
All processing to support the database
system is performed on a central
computer. Only input/output functions
are performed remotely.
(If PCs are used for remote access they
operate in terminal emulation mode
and do not perform processing)

50

Centralized Database with Remote

Access
Terminal

Terminal
Only I/O
done here

Terminal
Only I/O
done here

Central DB
Computer
All processing
related to DB
System done
here

Only I/O
done here

Terminal
Only I/O
done here

Centralized Versus Decentralized

Database Systems
Centralized Database with remote Access
All processing to support the database system
is performed on a central computer. Only
input/output functions are performed remotely.

Client-Server Database
All data reside on a central server
Core database management processing is
performed on server
Application files and processing to request data,
manipulate results and manage the user
interface is performed on client computers
52

Client-Server Database System

Client Comp
Syntax checks
of SQL stmts.
Manipulation
- presentation
of retrieved
data done here

Server
Computer
All Database
access, retrieval
and, manipulation processes
performed here

Client Comp
Syntax checks
of SQL stmts.
Manipulation
- presentation
of retrieved
data done here

References
ROB, P. AND CORONEL, C., 2004, Database
Systems. 6th Ed., Thomson Course Technology

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