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Prolog Syntax and Meaning: Ivan Bratko

This document discusses the syntax and semantics of Prolog programs. It describes the different types of data objects in Prolog like constants, atoms, numbers, variables, and structures. It explains the syntactic forms for atoms, numbers, variables, and structures. Structures can represent complex objects using functors and arguments. Matching and unification are important operations that allow terms to be compared and variables instantiated. The declarative and procedural meanings of Prolog are also discussed.

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Ninni Singh
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116 views27 pages

Prolog Syntax and Meaning: Ivan Bratko

This document discusses the syntax and semantics of Prolog programs. It describes the different types of data objects in Prolog like constants, atoms, numbers, variables, and structures. It explains the syntactic forms for atoms, numbers, variables, and structures. Structures can represent complex objects using functors and arguments. Matching and unification are important operations that allow terms to be compared and variables instantiated. The declarative and procedural meanings of Prolog are also discussed.

Uploaded by

Ninni Singh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PROLOG

SYNTAX AND MEANING


Ivan Bratko
University of Ljubljana
Faculty of Computer and Info. Sc.
Ljubljana, Slovenia

DATA OBJECTS
data objects

simple objects

constants

atoms

numbers

variables

structures

SYNTAX FOR DATA OBJECS

Type of object always recognisable from its syntactic


form

THREE SYNTACIC FORMS FOR ATOMS


(1) Strings of letters, digits, and _, starting with
lowercase letter:
x

x15

x_15

aBC_CBa7

alpha_beta_algorithm

taxi_35

peter

miss_Jones2

missJones

ATOMS, CTD.
(2) Strings of special characters
--->
.

<

<==>
>

<<
++

..

.::.

::=

[]

ATOMS, CTD.
(3) Strings in single quotes
X_35

Peter

Britney Spears

SYNTAX FOR NUMBERS

Integers
1

1313

-55

Real numbers (floating point)


3.14

-0.0045

1.34E-21

1.34e-21

SYNTAX FOR VARIABLES

Strings of letters, digits, and underscores, starting with


uppercase letter
X

Results

_x35

Object2B

Participant_list

_335

Lexical scope of variable names is one clause

Underscore stands for an anonymous variable


Each appearance of underscore: another anon. var.

ANONYMOUS VARIABLES
visible_block( B) :see( B, _, _).
Equivalent to:
visible_block( B) :see( B, X, Y).

STRUCTURES

Structures are objects that have several components


For example: dates are structured objects with three
components
Date 17 June 2006 can be represented by term:
date( 17, june, 2006)
functor

arguments

An argument can be any object, also a structure

FUNCTORS

Functor name chosen by user

Syntax for functors: atoms

Functor defined by name and arity

TREE REPRESENTATION
OF STRUCTURES
Often, structures are pictured as trees
date( 17, june, 2006)

date

17

june

2006

Therefore all structured objects in Prolog can be viewed


as trees

This is the only way of building structured objects in


Prolog

SOME GEOMETRIC OBJECTS


P2 = (2,3)
S

(6,4)
T

(4,2)
P1=(1,1)

(7,1)

P1 = point( 1, 1)
P2 = point( 2, 3)
S = seg( P1, P2) = seg( point(1,1), point(2,3))
T = triangle( point(4,2), point(5,4), point(7,1))

LINE SEGMENT
S = seg( point(1,1), point(2,3))

S = seg

point
1

point
1

ARITHMETIC EXPRESSIONS
ARE ALSO STRUCTURES

For example: (a + b) * (c - 5)

Written as term with functors:


*( +( a, b), -( c, 5))
*
+
a

MATCHING

Matching is operation on terms (structures)

Given two terms, they match if:


(1) They are identical, or
(2) They can be made identical by properly
instantiating the variables in both terms

EXAMPLE OF MATCHING

Matching two dates:


date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( D2, june, Y2)

This causes the variables to be instantianted as:


D1 = D2
M1 = june
Y2 = 2006
This is the most general instantiation
A less general instantiation would be: D1=D2=17, ...

MOST GENERAL INSTANTIATION

In Prolog, matching always results in most general instantiation

This commits the variables to the least possible extent, leaving


flexibility for further instantiation if required

For example:
?- date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( D2, june, Y2),
date( D1, M1, 2006) = date( 17, M3, Y3).
D1 = 17, D2 = 17, M1 = june, M3 = june,
Y2 = 2006, Y3 = 2006

MATCHING

Matching succeeds or fails; if succeeds then it results in the


most general instantiation

To decide whether terms S and T match:


(1) If S and T are constants then they match only if they are
identical
(2) If S is a variable then matching succeeds, S is
instantiated to T; analogously if T is a variable
(3) If S and T are structures then they match only if
(a) they both have the same principal functor, and
(b) all their corresponding arguments match

MATCHING UNIFICATION

Unification known in predicate logic

Unification = Matching + Occurs check

What happens when we ask Prolog:


?- X = f(X).
Matching succeeds, unification fails

COMPUTATION WITH MATCHING


% Definition of vertical and horizontal segments
vertical( seg( point( X1,Y1), point( X1, Y2))).
horizontal( seg( point( X1,Y1), point( X2, Y1))).
?- vertical( seg( point( 1,1), point( 1, 3))).
yes
?- vertical( seg( point( 1,1), point( 2, Y))).
no
?- vertical( seg( point( 2,3), P)).
P = point( 2, _173).

AN INTERESTING SEGMENT

Is there a segment that is both vertical and horizontal?

?- vertical( S), horizontal( S).


S = seg( point( X,Y), point(X,Y))

Note, Prolog may display this with new variables names


as for example:

S = seg( point( _13,_14), point( _13, _14))

DECLARATIVE MEANING

Given a program P and a goal G,


G is true ( i.e. logically follows from P) if and only if:
(1) There is a clause C in P such that
(2) there is a clause instance I of C such that
(a) the head of I is identical to G, and
(b) all the goals in the body of I are true

An instance of a clause C is obtained by renaming each variable in C


and possibly substituting the variable by some term. E.g. an instance of
p(X,Y) :- q(Y,Z)
is
p(U,a) :- q(a,V).

DECLARATIVE vs PROCEDURAL
MEANING OF
PROLOG PROGRAMS

Consider:
P :- Q, R.

Declarative readings of this:


P is true if Q and R are true.
From Q and R follows P.

Procedural readings:
To solve problem P, first solve subproblem Q and then R.
To satisfy P, first satisfy Q and then R.

PROCEDURAL MEANING

Specifies how Prolog answers questions


Procedural meaning is an algorithm to execute a list of goals
given a Prolog program:
program
success/failure indication
goal list

execute
instantiation of variables

procedure execute( Program, GoalList, Success)

execute = declarative meaning + procedural elements


Search program from top to bottom to find such clause

G is true ( i.e. logically follows from P) if and only if:


(1) there is a clause C in P such that
(2) there is a clause instance I of C such that
(a) the head of I is identical to G, and
(b) all the goals in the body of I are true
Match G and
head of C

Execute goals in order as they


appear in program

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