ME 3507: Theory of Machines

Machines & Mechanical

Advantage

Dr. Faraz Junejo

What is work?
In science, the word work has a different
meaning than you may be familiar with.
The scientific definition of work is: using
a force to move an object a distance
(when both the force and the motion of
the object are in the same direction.)

Work or Not?
According to the
scientific definition,
what is work and
what is not?
a teacher lecturing
to her class
a mouse pushing a
piece of cheese
with its nose across
the floor

Work or Not?
According to the
scientific definition,
what is work and what
is not?
a teacher lecturing to
her class
a mouse pushing a
piece of cheese with its
nose across the floor

Whats work?
A scientist delivers a speech to an audience of
his peers.
A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his head.
A mother carries her baby from room to room.
A father pushes a baby in a carriage.

A woman carries a 20 kg grocery bag to her

car?

Whats work?
A scientist delivers a speech to an audience
of his peers. No
A body builder lifts 350 pounds above his
head. Yes
A mother carries her baby from room to
room. No
A father pushes a baby in a carriage. Yes

A woman carries a 20 km grocery bag to her

car? No

Formula for work

Work = Force x Distance

The unit of force is newtons

The unit of distance is meters
The unit of work is newton-meters
One newton-meter is equal to one
joule
So, the unit of work is a joule

W=FD
Work = Force x
Distance
Calculate: If a
man pushes a
concrete block
10 meters with a
force of 20 N,
how much work
has he done?

W=FD
Work = Force x
Distance
Calculate: If a man
pushes a concrete
block 10 meters with
a force of 20 N, how
much work has he
done? 200 joules
(W = 20N x 10m)

History of Work

Before engines and motors were invented, people

had to do things like lifting or pushing heavy loads
by hand. Using an animal could help, but what they
really needed were some clever ways to either
make work easier or faster.

Simple Machines
Ancient
people
invented
simple
machines that would help them
overcome resistive forces and allow
them to do the desired work against
those forces.

What is an instrument
that makes work
easier called?

a
machine

Machine

Machine (contd.)
Machines help us do work by
redistributing the work that we put
into them.
They can change the direction of
force and they can increase the
amount of force that is applied they
can multiply the force applied.

Work = force X distance

By looking at the equation: if the amount
of work is the same, what happens when
you increase the distance the force is
applied

or

when

you

decrease

distance the force is applied?

Increase force is smaller

Decrease force is larger

the

Example
Compare the amount of force required
to lift a box straight onto the bed of a
truck (1 m) with the amount of force
required to push the same box up a
ramp (3 m). Given Work = 225 J

Example (contd.)
When lifting a box
straight up, a
mover applies a
large force over a
short distance (1
meter).
W=f X d
225 J = F X 1

F= 225N

Using a ramp at an
angle to lift the
box, the mover
applies a smaller
force over a longer
distance (3
meters).
W=f X d
225 J = F X 3

F= 75N

Simple Machines
Six types : simple lever, pulley,
wheel and axle, simple inclined
plane, wedge, screw
Divided into two families : the
lever family and the inclined
plane family

Lever Family
All levers have a rigid arm that turns around
a point called a fulcrum. Force is transferred
from one part of the arm to another.
The

input

force

can

be

multiplied

or

redirected into an output force.

Three class of levers based on the location
of the fulcrum and of the input/output forces.

There are 3 Classes of

Levers
Depends on the location
of 3 items:
1. Fulcrum fixed point
on a lever
2. Effort Arm the part
of the lever that exerts
the effort force.
3. Resistance Arm the
part of the lever that
exerts the resistance
force.

EA

RA

Three classes of Levers

First class lever has a fulcrum located
between the points of input and output
force.

Examples include: See-saw, scissors,

First Class Lever (contd.)

A first-class lever always changes the
direction of force (I.e. a downward
effort force on the lever results in an
upward movement of the resistance
force).

First Class Lever (contd.)

Fulcrum is between EF (effort) and RF

(load)
Effort

moves

Resistance.

farther

than

Three classes of Levers (contd.)

Second class lever fulcrum is at one end
of the arm and the input force is applied to
the other end. The wheel of a wheelbarrow
is a fulcrum.

Examples include: Nutcracker, bottle

opener, wheel barrow

Second Class Lever (contd.)

A second-class lever does not change

the direction of force. When the fulcrum
is located closer to the load than to the
effort

force,

an

increase

in

(mechanical advantage) results.

force

Second Class Lever

(contd.)

RF (load) is between fulcrum and EF

Effort moves farther than Resistance.
Multiplies EF, but does not change its direction

Three classes of Levers (contd.)

Third class lever multiply distance rather
than force. Have the effort placed between
the fulcrum and the load.

Examples include: Hammers, shovels,

tongs

Third Class Lever (contd.)

A third-class lever does not change the

direction of force;
third-class levers always produce a
gain in speed and distance and a
corresponding decrease in force.

Third Class Lever (contd.)

EF is between fulcrum and RF (load)

Does not multiply force
Resistance moves farther than Effort.
Multiplies the distance the effort force travels

A pulley is a modified lever

The point in the middle of a pulley is like the
fulcrum of a lever.

Wheel and Axle

Another variation of the lever is the simple

machine known as a wheel and axle.

A wheel and axle consists of two circular

pieces of different sizes attached to each

other.
The larger circular piece is the wheel in the

system, and the smaller circular piece is the

axle.

Wheel and Axle (contd.)

One of the circular pieces can be considered

as the effort arm of the lever and the second,
the resistance arm, having the same axis.
The place at which the two are joined is the
fulcrum of the system.
The effort (applied to the wheel) needed to overcome
the resistance (acting upon the axle) is relatively
small, for example a person can put a little force into
turning the handle i.e. steering wheel to move a heavy
car.

Summary: Wheel and Axle

Wheel and axle is made of a lever or
a pulley (The wheel) connected to a
shaft (the axle). When the wheel
turns, so does the axle.
Example screwdriver, steering
wheel of a car, Ferris wheel.

Example
You apply a force on the wheel, whose radius R is larger

than the axle. The force is transmitted to the axle,

which has radius r. This resultant force, which is bigger
than the force you applied, does some work for you.
The force that does the work is bigger by a factor of

R/r. For example, if the wheel is 20 times wider than

the axle, the resultant force will be 20 times bigger.
However, the axle turns through a circular distance of
only a twentieth of that through which you turned the
wheel.

Wheel and axle: Example

The axle is stuck rigidly to a large
wheel. Fan blades are attached to the
wheel. When the axel turns, the fan
blades spin.

Wheel and Axle

The wheel and axle is
a
simple
machine
consisting of a large
wheel rigidly secured
to a smaller wheel or
shaft, called an axle.
When either the wheel
or axle turns, the
other part also turns.
One full revolution of
either part causes one
full revolution of the
other part.

Pulleys
Pulley are wheels and
axles with a groove
around the outside
A pulley needs a
rope, chain or belt
around the groove to
make it do work.

Inclined Plane

Multiply and redirect force

When you push an object up a ramp, you
apply a force to the object in a direction
parallel to the ramp. The ramp then redirects
this force to lift the object upward.
Turns a small input force into a large output
force by spreading work out over a large

Wedge
Functions like two inclined planes back

to back. You actually push down on

the wedge and it divides the force out
both sides.
Example nail or ax blade

Screw
An inclined plane wrapped around a
cylinder

Compound Machines
Combines two or more simple machines
together
Example scissors (2 first class levers)

Mechanical Advantage
(MA)
A machine is designed so that the
load overcome is greater then the
effort applied.
This ratio of load to effort is known
as he mechanical advantage of the
machine.

Mechanical Advantage
The number of times a machine
multiplies your effort force.
Example: If you push on the handle of a
car jack with a force of 30 lbs and the
jack lifts a 3000 lb car, what is the jacks
mechanical advantage?
The jack multiplies your effort force by
100 times.

Types of mechanical advantage

IMA Ideal mechanical
advantage.
This is the number of
times a machine is
designed to multiply
your effort force.
It is based on
measurements of the
machine.
Ignores friction

AMA Actual
mechanical
advantage
This is the number of
times the machine
actually multiplies
your effort force.
AMA = resistance
force/effort force.
Includes the effects of
friction

IMA is always greater than AMA.

How to calculate MA
MA = Output force / Input force
What is the mechanical advantage of
a lever that requires an input force of
20 N and lifts an object that weighs
60 N?

Calculating mechanical
advantage
Input of 20 N
Output of 60 N
MA?
MA = 60 N / 20 N
MA = 60 N / 20 N
MA = 3 or 3:1

Mechanical Advantage Equation

mechanical advantage = output force = input distance
input force
output distance
M.A. = Fo
Fi

di
do

mechanical advantage = resistance force = effort distance

effort force
resistance distance
M.A. = FR
FE

dE
dR

The resistance force can be just the weight of the object you are trying
to move. (Weight is a force of gravity.)
Mechanical advantage has no units.

M.A. Problem 1
What is the mechanical
advantage of a crowbar
that allows you to put 25
Newton of force into lifting
a 250 Newton crate?

M.A. Problem 1
What is the mechanical advantage of a crowbar that
allows you to put 25 newtons of force into lifting a
250 newton crate?

M.A. = Fo
Fi

M.A. = FR
FE

M.A. = 250 N = 10
25 N

M.A. = 250 N = 10
25 N

How many times does the crowbar multiply the force that was
put into it? (Hint: Look at the answer.)

M.A. Problem 2
What is the mechanical
advantage of ramp that is
10 m long and 3 m high?

M.A. Problem 2
What is the mechanical advantage of
ramp that is 10 m long and 3 m high?
M.A. = di
do

M.A. = dE
dR

M.A. = 10 m = 3.3
3m

M.A. = 10 m = 3.3
3m

M.A. Problem 3
A pulley system has a
mechanical advantage of 10.
a. If a mover uses this pulley
to lift a piano with a weigh of
1450 N a distance of 4 m, how
much force must the mover
use?
b. How far will the mover pull

M.A. Problem 3 (contd.)

A pulley system has a mechanical advantage
of 10.
a. If a mover uses this pulley to lift a piano
with a weigh of 1450 N a distance of 4 m,
how much force must the mover use?
b. How far will the mover pull the rope?
a. M.A. =

Fo
Fi

10 = 1450 N
Fi
Fi = 1450 N
10
Fi = 145 N

b. M.A. =

di
do

10 = di
4m
(10)(4m) = di
di = 40

Are any actual

machines
100% efficient?

Are any actual

machines
100% efficient?
There are no machines that are
100% efficient. Every machine deals
with

frictionsome

others.

more

than

Friction is a force that

opposes motion.

Ideal Machines
Ideal Machines are 100%
efficient.
Ideal Machines do not exist.

What form of energy

does friction produce?

What form of energy

does friction produce?

heat
Why? Friction opposes
motion.

Efficiency
The efficiency of a machine is defined
as the ratio of the output work to the
input work.
efficiency = work output x 100%
work input
eff = Wo x 100%
Wi

Efficiency (contd.)
In an ideal machine
- work output equals work input.
- the efficiency is 100%.
In real machines
- the efficiency is less than 100%.
- work output is less than work
input.
- loss due to friction and heat.

Problem 1
A man uses 419 J of work in
removing a nail from a piece of wood
with a hammer. The hammer has a
work output of 305 J. What is the
efficiency of the hammer?

Problem 1: Solution
A man uses 419 J of work in removing a
nail from a piece of wood with a hammer.
The hammer has a work output of 305 J.
What is the efficiency of the hammer?

eff = Wo x
100%
Wi

eff = 305 J x
100

Problem 2
John uses 39 J of energy
to move four boxes with
the handcart. The work
output from the
handcart is 32.4 J.
What is the efficiency of
the handcart?

Problem 2: Solution

John uses 39 J of energy to move four

boxes with the handcart. The work
output from the handcart is 32.4 J.
What is the efficiency of the
handcart?

eff = Wo x 100%
Wi

eff = 32.4 J x 100

39 J

Practice Questions
1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying
bricks and placing them on the wall of a building being constructed, or
a project supervisor observing and recording the progress of the
workers from an observation booth.

2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a floor

with a force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original position?
How much power is used if this work is done in 20 sec?

3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift?

Practice Questions (contd.)

4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both an
advantage and a disadvantage.
5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100%
efficiency?

6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the

relationship between effort force, effort distance, and work
input.

Practice Questions: Answers

1. Explain who is doing more work and why: a bricklayer carrying bricks and
placing them on the wall of a building being constructed, or a project
supervisor observing and recording the progress of the workers from an
observation booth. Work is defined as a force applied to an object, moving that
object a distance in the direction of the applied force. The bricklayer is doing
more work.
2. How much work is done in pushing an object 7.0 m across a floor with a
force of 50 N and then pushing it back to its original position? How much
power is used if this work is done in 20 sec? Work = 7 m X 50 N X 2 = 700 N-m
or J; Power = 700 N-m/20 sec = 35 W
3. Using a single fixed pulley, how heavy a load could you lift?Since a fixed
pulley has a mechanical advantage of one, it will only change the direction of
the force applied to it. You would be able to lift a load equal to your own
weight, minus the negative effects of friction.

Practice Questions: Answers

4. Give an example of a machine in which friction is both an advantage and a

disadvantage. One answer might be the use of a car jack. Advantage of friction:
It allows a car to be raised to a desired height without slipping. Disadvantage
of friction: It reduces efficiency.

5. Why is it not possible to have a machine with 100% efficiency? Friction lowers
the efficiency of a machine. Work output is always less than work input, so an
actual machine cannot be 100% efficient.
6. What is effort force? What is work input? Explain the relationship between effort
force, effort distance, and work input. The effort force is the force applied to a
machine. Work input is the work done on a machine. The work input of a
machine is equal to the effort force times the distance over which the effort
force is exerted.

Summary: Mechanical
advantage

The

factor

by

which

mechanism/machine multiplies the

force put into it.
A ratio of output force to input force
Mechanical advantage of a system is
the ratio of the force that performs
the useful work to the force applied.