Computational Models for

Prediction of Fire Behaviour

Dr. Andrej Horvat

Intelligent Fluid Solutions Ltd.
Ljubljana, Slovenia
17 January, 2008

Contact information

IFS

Andrej Horvat
Intelligent Fluid Solution Ltd.
127 Crookston Road, London, SE9 1YF, United Kingdom
Tel./Fax: +44 (0)1235 819 729
Mobile: +44 (0)78 33 55 63 73
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.intelligentfluidsolutions.co.uk

Personal information

IFS

1995, Dipl. -Ing. Mech. Eng. (Process Tech.)

University of Maribor

1998, M.Sc. Nuclear Eng.

University of Ljubljana

2001, Ph.D. Nuclear Eng.

University of Ljubljana

2002, M.Sc. Mech. Eng. (Fluid Mechanics & Heat Transfer)

University of California, Los Angeles

Personal information

IFS

More than 10 years of intensive CFD related experience:

R&D of numerical methods and their implementation

(convection schemes, LES methods, semi-analytical methods,
Reynolds Stress models)

Design analysis
(large heat exchangers, small heat sinks, burners, drilling equip.,
flash furnaces, submersibles)

Fire prediction and suppression

(backdraft, flashover, marine environment, gas releases,
determination of evacuation criteria)

Safety calculations for nuclear and oil industry

(water hammer, PSA methods, severe accidents scenarios, pollution
dispersion)

Personal information

IFS

As well as CFD, experiences also in:

Experimental methods

QA procedures

Standardisation and technical regulations

Commercialisation of technical expertise and software

products

Contents

IFS

Overview of fluid dynamics transport equations

- transport of mass, momentum, energy and composition
- influence of convection, diffusion, volumetric (buoyancy) force
- transport equation for thermal radiation

Averaging and simplification of transport equations

- spatial averaging
- time averaging
- influence of averaging on zone and field models

Zone models
- basics of zone models (1 and 2 zone models)
- advantages and disadvantages

Contents

Field models
-

IFS

numerical mesh and discretisation of transport equations

turbulence models (k-epsilon, k-omega, Reynolds stress, LES)
combustion models (mixture fraction, eddy dissipation, flamelet)
thermal radiation models (discrete transfer, Monte Carlo)
examples of use

Conclusions
- software packages

Examples
- diffusion flame
- fire in an enclosure
- fire in a tunnel

Some basic thoughts

IFS

Today, CFD methods are well established tools that help in design,
prototyping, testing and analysis

The motivation for development of modelling methods (not only CFD)

is to reduce cost and time of product development, and to improve
efficiency and safety of existing products and installations

Verification and validation of modelling approaches by comparing

computed results with experimental data are necessary

Nevertheless, in some cases CFD is the only viable research and

design tool (e.g. hypersonic flows in rarefied atmosphere)

IFS
Overview of fluid dynamics
transport equations

Transport equations

IFS

The continuum assumption

- A control volume has to contain a large number of particles (atoms or

molecules): Knudsen number << 1.0
- At equal distribution of particles (atoms or molecules) flow quantities remain
unchanged despite of changes in location and size of a control volume

10

Transport equations

IFS

Eulerian and Lagrangian description

Eulerian description transport equations for mass, momentum

and energy are written for a (stationary) control volume

Lagrangian description transport equations for mass,

momentum and energy are written for a moving material particle

11

Transport equations

IFS

Transport of mass and composition

Transport of momentum

Transport of energy

12

Transport equations

IFS

Majority of the numerical modelling in fluid mechanics is

based on Eulerian formulation of transport equations
Using the Eulerian formulation, each physical quantity is
described as a mathematical field. Therefore, these
models are also named field models
Lagrangian formulation is basis for modelling of particle
dynamics: bubbles, droplets (sprinklers), solid particles
(dust) etc.

13

Transport equations

IFS

Droplets trajectories from sprinklers (left), gas temperature

field during fire suppression (right)
14

IFS

Transport equations

Eulerian formulation of mass transport equation

integral form

differential (weak) form

The equation also appears in the following forms

change of mass
in a control vol.

flux difference
(convection)

non-conservative form

~0
in incompressible15
fluid flow

IFS

Transport equations

Eulerian formulation of mass fraction transport equation

(general form)

change of mass of a
flux
component in a
difference
control vol.
(convection)

diffusive
mass flow

16

Transport equations

IFS

Eulerian formulation of momentum equation

change of momentum
volumetric pressure viscous
force
in a control vol.
force
flux difference force
(diffusion)
(convection)

17

Transport equations

IFS

Eulerian formulation of energy transport equation

change of internal energy

flux
deformation diffusive heat
in a control vol.
difference
work
flow
(convection)

18

IFS

Transport equations

The following physical laws and terms also need to be

included
diffusive terms - Newton's viscosity law
flux is a linear
- Fourier's law of heat conduction
function of a gradient
- Fick's law of mass transfer

- Sources and sinks due to thermal radiation, chemical

reactions etc.

19

Transport equations

IFS

Transport of mass and composition

Transport of momentum

Transport of energy

20

IFS

Transport equations
Lagrangian formulation is simpler
- equation of the particle location
- mass conservation eq. for a particle
- momentum conservation eq. for a particle

drag

lift

volumetric
forces

21

IFS

Transport equations

- thermal energy conservation eq. for a particle

convection

latent
heat

thermal
radiation

Conservation equations of Lagrangian model need to be

solved for each representative particle

22

IFS

Transport equations
Thermal radiation
s

I(s)

I(s+ds)
dA
Ie

change of
radiation
intensity

Is

absorption emission
and
out-scattering

in-scattering

23

IFS

Transport equations
Thermal radiation

Equations describing thermal radiation are much more

complicated
- spectral dependency of material properties
- angular (directional) dependence of the radiation transport

change of
radiation
intensity

absorption emission
and
out-scattering

in-scattering

24

IFS
Averaging and simplification
of transport equations

25

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

The presented set of transport equations is analytically

unsolvable for the majority of cases
Success of a numerical solving procedure is based on
density of the numerical grid, and in transient cases, also
on the size of the integration time-step
Averaging and simplification of transport equations help
(and improve) solving the system of equations:
- derivation of averaged transport equations for turbulent
flow simulation
- derivation of integral (zone) models
26

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Averaging and filtering

, vi , p, h

The largest flow structures can occupy the whole flow

field, whereas the smallest vortices have the size of
Kolmogorov scale
27

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Kolmogorov scale is (for most cases) too small to be

captured with a numerical grid
Therefore, the transport equations have to be filtered
(averaged) over:
- spatial interval Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
methods

h x ,t G x h ,t d h x ,t h x ,t h' x ,t

- time interval k-epsilon model, SST model,

Reynolds stress models

h x ,t G t h x , d h x ,t h x ,t h x ,t

28

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Transport equation variables can be decomposed onto

a filtered (averaged) part and a residual (fluctuation)

Filtered (averaged) transport equations

turbulent mass
fluxes
sources and sinks
represent a separate
problem and require
additional models

turbulent heat fluxes

- turbulent stresses
- Reynolds stresses
- subgrid stresses

29

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Turbulent stresses
Transport equation

higher order
product
turbulence
generation
turbulence
dissipation

- the equation is not solvable due to the higher order product

- all turbulence models include at least some of the terms of this
equation (at least the generation and the dissipation term)

30

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Turbulent heat and mass fluxes

Transport equation

higher order product

generation
dissipation

- the equation is not solvable due to the higher order product

- most of the turbulence models do not take into account the
equation

31

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Turbulent heat fluxes due to thermal radiation

- little is known and published on the subject
- majority of models do not include this contribution
- radiation heat flow due to turbulence

32

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Buoyancy induced flow over a heat source (Gr=10e10);

inert model of a fire
33

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

(a)

LES model; instantaneous temperature field

34

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

(a)

a)

IFS

b)

Temperature field comparison:

a) steady-state RANS model, b) averaged LES model results
35

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

(a)

IFS

a)
Comparison of instantaneous mass fraction in a gravity
current : a) transient RANS model, b) LES model

b)

36

Averaging and simplification of

transport equations

IFS

Additional simplifications
- flow can be modelled as a steady-state case the
solution is a result of force, energy and mass flow balance
taking into consideration sources and sinks
- fire can be modelled as a simple heat source inert
models; do not need to solve transport equations for
composition
- thermal radiation heat transfer is modelled as a simple sink
of thermal energy FDS takes 35% of thermal energy
- control volumes can be so large that continuity of flow
properties is not preserved zone models
37

IFS
Zone models

38

Zone models

IFS

Basics
- theoretical base of zone model is conservation of mass
and energy in a space separated onto zones
- thermodynamic conditions in a zone are constant; in
fields models the conditions are constant in a control
volume
- zone models take into account released heat due to
combustion of flammable materials, buoyant flows as a
consequence of fire, mass flow, smoke dynamics and
gas temperature
- zone models are based on certain empirical assumptions
- in general, they can be divided onto one- and two-zone
39
models

IFS

Zone models
One-zone and two-zone models

- one-zone models can be used only for assessment of

a fully developed fire after flashover
- in such conditions, a valid approximation is that the gas
temperature, density, internal energy and pressure are
(more or less) constant across the room
Qw (konv+rad)
Qin (konv)
mout

Qout (konv+rad)
pg , Tg , mg , vg

mf , Hf

min

40

IFS

Zone models
One-zone and two-zone models

- two-zone models can be used for evaluation of a

localised fire before flashover
- a room is separated onto different zone, most often
onto an upper and lower zone, a fire and buoyant flow
of gases above the fire
- conditions are uniform and constant in each zone
Qw (konv+rad)
mU,out
mL,out

mf , Hf

Qin (konv)

zgornja cona QU,out (konv+rad)

pU,g , TU,g , mU,g , vU,g
spodnja cona
pL,g , TL,g , mL,g , vL,g

mL,in

QL,out (konv+rad)

41

Zone models

IFS

Advantages and disadvantages of zone models

- in zone models, ordinary differential equations describe
the conditions more easily solvable equations
- because of small number of zones, the models are fast
- simple setup of different arrangement of spaces as well
as of size and location of openings
- these models can be used only in the frame of theoretical
assumptions that they are based on
- they cannot be used to obtain a detailed picture of flow
and thermal conditions
- these models are limited to the geometrical
arrangements that they can describe

42

IFS
Field models

43

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- analytical solutions of transport equations are known only
for few very simple cases
- for most real world cases, one needs to use numerical
methods and algorithms, which transform partial
differential equations to a series of algebraic equations
- each discrete point in time and space corresponds to an
equation, which connects a grid point with its neighbours
- The process is called discretisation. The following
methods are used: finite difference method, finite volume
method, finite element method and boundary element
method (and different hybrid methods)
44

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- simple example of discretisation

- many different discretisation schemes exist; they can be

divided onto conservative and non-conservative schemes
(linked to the discrete form of the convection term)

45

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- non-conservative schemes represent a linear form and
therefore they are more stable and numerically better
manageable
- non-conservative schemes do not conserve transported
quantities, which can lead to time-shift of a numerical
solution
time-shift due to a
non-conservative
scheme

46

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- quality of numerical discretisation is defined with
discrepancy between a numerical approximation and an
analytical solution
- error is closely link to the order of discretisation

1st order truncation (~x)

47

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- higher order methods lead to lower truncation errors, but
more neighbouring nodes are needed to define a
derivative for a discretised transport equation
- two types of numerical error: dissipation and dispersion

48

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- during the discretisation process most of the attention
goes to the convection terms
- the 1st order methods have dissipative truncation error,
whereas the 2nd order methods introduce numerical
dispersion
- today's hybrid methods are a combination of 1st and 2nd
order accurate schemes. These methods switch
automatically from a 2nd order to a 1st order scheme near
discontinuities to damp oscillations (TVD schemes)
- there are also higher order schemes (ENO, WENO etc.)
but their use is limited on structured numerical meshes
49

IFS

Field models

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- connection matrix and location of neighbouring grid
nodes defines two types of numerical grid: structured and
unstructured numerical grid

i-1, j+1

i, j+1

i+1, j+1

k+2

k+1

k+6

i-1, j

i, j

i+1, j

k+9

k+3

i-1, j-1

i, j-1

i+1, j-1

k+7

k+5

k+4

structured grid

unstructured grid

50

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- unstructured grids raise a possibility of arbitrary
orientation and form of control volumes and therefore
offer larger geometrical flexibility
- all modern simulation packages (CFX, Fluent, Star-CD)
are based on the unstructured grid arrangement

51

Field models

IFS

Numerical grid and discretisation of transport equations

- flame above a burner
- automatic refinement of
unstructured numerical
grid
- start with 44,800 control
volumes; 3 stages of
refinement which leads to
150,000 cont. volumes
- refinement criteria velocity and temperature
gradients
52

IFS
Turbulence
models

53

Turbulence models

IFS

laminar flow

transitional flow

turbulent flow
van Dyke, 1965

54

Turbulence models

IFS

Turbulence models introduce additional (physically related)

diffusion to a numerical simulation
This enables :
- RANS models to use a larger time step (t >> Kolmogorov
time scale) or even steady-state simulation
- LES models to use less dense (smaller) numerical grid
(x > Kolmogorov length scale)
The selection of the turbulence model influences the
distribution of the simulated flow fundamentally and hence
that of the flow variables (velocity, temperature, heat flow,
composition etc)
55

Turbulence models

IFS

In general 2 kinds of averaging (filtering) exist, which

leads to 2 families of turbulence models:
- filtering over a spatial interval Large Eddy Simulation
(LES) models
- filtering over a time interval Reynolds Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) models: k-epsilon model, SST
model, Reynolds Stress models etc
For RANS models, size of the averaging time interval is
not known or given (statistical average of experimental
data)
For LES models, size of the filter or the spatial averaging
interval is a basic input parameter (in most case it is
equal to grid spacing)
56

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

For two-equation models (e.g. k-epsilon, k-omega or SST), 2
additional transport equations need to be solved:
- for kinetic energy of turbulent fluctuations

- for dissipation of turbulent fluctuations

or
- for frequency of turbulent fluctuations

57

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

k-epsilon model

production
(source)
term
convection

production (source) term

diffusion

destruction
(sink) term

58

IFS

Turbulence models

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

- model parameters are usually defined from experimental data

e.g. dissipation of grid generated turbulence or flow in a
channel
C

C1

C2

C3

Prt

0.09

1.44

1.92

1.0

1.0

1.3

0.9

- from the calculated values of k in , eddy viscosity is defined as

- from eddy viscosity, Reynolds stresses, turbulent heat and
mass fluxes are obtained

59

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

- transport equation for k is derived directly from the transport

equations for Reynolds stresses
- transport equation for is empirical
- these equations have a common form: source and sink term,
convection and diffusion term
- the rest of the terms are model specific and they can be
numerically and computationally very demanding
- definition and implementation of boundary conditions is
different even for the same turbulence model between
different software vendors

60

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

For Reynolds Stress (RS) model, 7 additional transport
equations need to be solved:
- for 6 components of Reynolds stress tensor

- for dissipation of turbulent fluctuations

or
- for frequency of turbulent fluctuations

61

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

Reynolds stress model

generation
(source) term

convection

generation
diffusion term
(source) term
pressure-velocity
fluctuation term

destruction
(sink) term

62

Turbulence models

IFS

Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models

- Reynolds stress models calculate turbulent stresses directly introduction

of eddy viscosity is not needed
- includes the pressure-velocity fluctuation term

- describes anisotropic turbulent behaviour

- computationally more demanding than the two-equation
models
- due to higher order terms (linear and non-linear), RS
models are numerically more complex (convergence)

63

Turbulence models

IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models

- Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models are based on spatial filtering

(averaging)
- many different forms of the filter exist, but most common is "top hat"
filter (simple geometrical averaging)
- the size of the filter is based on grid node spacing
Basic assumption of LES methodology:
Size of the used filter is so small that the averaged flow structures do
no influence large structures, which contain most of the energy.
These small structures are being deformed, disintegrated onto even
smaller structures until they do not dissipate due to viscosity (kinetic
energy thermal energy).

64

Turbulence models

IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models

- required size of flow structures for LES modelling

- these structures are in the turbulence inertial subrange

and they are isotropic
- on this level, turbulence production is of the same size as
turbulence dissipation

65

IFS

Turbulence models

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models

- eddy (turbulent) viscosity is defined as

where
- using the definition of turbulent (subgrid) stresses

grid spacing

and turbulent fluxes

the expression for turbulent viscosity can be written as
where the contribution
due to buoyancy is

66

Turbulence models

IFS

Large Eddy Simulation (LES) models

- presented Smagorinsky model is the simplest from LES models

- it requires knowledge of empirical parameter Cs, which is not
constant for all flow conditions
- newer, dynamic LES models calculates Cs locally - the
procedure demands introduction of the secondary filter
- LES models demand much denser (larger) numerical grid
- they are used for transient simulations
- to obtain average flow characteristics, we need to perform
statistical averaging over the simulated time interval

67

IFS

Turbulence models

Comparison of turbulence models

10

10

k-e (Gr = 10 )
10
k-e N&B (Gr = 10 )
10
RNG k-e (Gr = 10 )
10
S S T (Gr = 10 )
10
S S G (Gr = 10 )
10
LES (Gr = 10 )
Rous e e t al. (1952)
S habbir and Ge orge (1 994)

8
7
6
5
4

k-e (Gr = 10 )
10
k-e N&B (Gr = 10 )
10
RNG k-e (Gr = 1 0 )
10
S S T (Gr = 1 0 )
10
S S G (Gr = 1 0 )
10
LES (Gr = 1 0 )
Rous e e t al. (1 95 2)
S habbir and Ge o rg e (19 94 )

10

w c ( R / F 0 ) 1 /3

b c(R 5/F 20)1/3

-1

10 -2

25

50

z/R

a)

75

100

25

50

75

100

z/R

b)

Buoyant flow over a heat source: a) velocity, b) temperature*

68

IFS
Combustion
models

69

IFS

Combustion models

Chen et al., 1988

Grinstein,
Kailasanath, 1992

70

Combustion models

IFS

Combustion can be modelled with heat sources

- information on chemical composition is lost
- thermal loading is usually under-estimated
Combustion modelling contains
- solving transport equations for composition
- chemical balance equation
- reaction rate model
Modelling approach dictates the number of additional
transport equations required

71

Combustion models

IFS

Modelling of composition requires solving n-1 transport

equations for mixture components mass or molar
(volume) fractions

Chemical balance equation can be written as

or
72

Combustion models

IFS

Reaction source term is defined as

or for multiple
reactions
where R or Rk is a reaction rate
Reaction rate is determined using different models
- Constant burning (reaction) velocity
- Eddy break-up model and Eddy dissipation model
- Finite rate chemistry model
- Flamelet model
- Burning velocity model
73

IFS

Combustion models
Constant burning velocity sL

speed of flame front propagation is

larger due to expansion

- values are experimentally determined for ideal conditions

- limits due reaction kinetics and fluid mechanics are not
taken into account
- source/sink in mass fraction transport equation
- source/sink in energy transport equation
- expressions for sL usually include additional models
74

Combustion models

IFS

Eddy break-up model and Eddy dissipation model

- is a well established model
- based on the assumption that the reaction is much faster
than the transport processes in flow
- reaction rate depends on mixing rate of reactants in
turbulent flow
- Eddy break-up model reaction rate
- Eddy dissipation model reaction rate

75

Combustion models

IFS

Eddy break-up model and Eddy dissipation model

- typical values of model coefficients CA = 4 in CB = 0.5
- the model can be used for simple reactions (one- and
two-step combustion)
- in general, it cannot be used for prediction of products of
complex chemical processes (NO, CO, SOx, etc)
- the use can be extended by adding different reaction rate
limiters extinction due to turbulence, low temperature,
chemical time scale etc.

76

Combustion models

IFS

Backdraft simulation

77

Combustion models

IFS

Finite rate chemistry model

- it is applicable when a chemical reaction rate is slow or
comparable with turbulent mixing
- reaction kinetics must be known

- for each additional component, the component molar

concentration I needs to be multiplied with the product
- for each additional reaction the same expression is
added

78

Combustion models

IFS

Finite rate chemistry model

- the model is numerically demanding due to exponential
terms
- often the model is used in combination with the Eddy
dissipation model

79

Combustion models

IFS

Flamelet model
- describes interaction of reaction kinetics with turbulent
structures for a fast reaction (high Damkhler number)
- basic assumption is that combustion is taking place in
thin sheets - flamelets
- turbulent flame is an ensemble of laminar flamelets
- the model gives a detailed picture of chemical
composition - resolution of small length and time scales
of the flow is not needed
- the model is also known as "Mixed-is-burnt" - large
difference between various implementations of the
model

80

IFS

Combustion models
Flamelet model

- the model is only applicable for two-feed systems

(fuel and oxidiser)
- it is based on definition of a mixture fraction
Z kg/s fuel

A
1-Z kg/s oxidiser

mealni
proces

1 kg/s mixture

or
Z is 1 in a fuel stream, 0 in an oxidiser stream
81

Combustion models

IFS

Flamelet model

- conserved property often used in the mixture fraction

definition
- for a simple chemical reaction
the stoihiometric ratio is

82

Combustion models

IFS

Flamelet model
- Shvab-Zel'dovich variable

- the conditions in vicinity of flamelets are described

with the respect to Z; Z=Zst is a surface with the
stoihiometric conditions
- transport equations are rewritten with Z dependencies;
conditions are one-dimensional (Z) , T(Z) etc.
- for limited cases, the simplified equations can be solve
83
analytically

Combustion models

IFS

Flamelet model
- numerical implementations of the model differ significantly
- for turbulent flow, we need to solve an additional transport
equation for mixture fraction Z

- and a transport equation for variation of mixture fraction Z"

84

IFS

Combustion models
Flamelet model

- composition is calculated from preloaded libraries

1

~ Z PDF Z dZ

j
j
0

~ Z , PDF Z PDF dZ d

j
j
0 0

these PDFs are tabulated for different fuel,

oxidiser, pressure and temperature

- is the scalar dissipation rate

- it increases with stresses (stretching of a flame front)
and decreases with diffusion.
- at critical value of flame extinguishes

85

Combustion models

IFS

Flamelet model

Ferreira, Schlatter, 1995

86

Combustion models

IFS

Burning velocity model

- it is used for pre-mixed or partially pre-mixed combustion
- contains:
a) model of the reaction progress:
Burning Velocity Model (BVM) or Turbulent Flame Closure (TFC)
b) model for composition of the reacting mixture:
Flamelet model

- definition of the reaction progress variable c, where c = 0

corresponds to the fresh mixture, and c = 1 to combustion
products

87

IFS

Combustion models
Burning velocity model
Preheating

T, j

Reaction layer O()

Oxidation layer

Temperature

Oxidiser
Products
Fuel

Flame location
l F 0.1 ... 0.5 mm

x
l 0.01 mm

88

Combustion models

IFS

Burning velocity model

- additional transport equation for the reaction progress
variable

source term

- source/sink due to combustion is defined as

modelling of the turbulent burning velocity

- better results by solving the transport equation for

weighted reaction progress variable

89

Combustion models

IFS

Burning velocity model

- it is suitable for a single step reaction
- applicable for fast chemistry conditions (Da >> 1)
- a thin reaction zone assumption
- fresh gases and products need to be separated

90

IFS
Thermal radiation
models

91

IFS

Thermal radiation

It is a very important heat transfer mechanism during

fire
In fire simulations, thermal radiation should not be
neglected
The simplest approach is to reduce the heat release
rate of a fire (35% reduction in FDS)
Modelling of thermal radiation - solving transport
equation for radiation intensity

change of
intensity

absorption emission
and scattering

in-scattering

92

Thermal radiation

IFS

Radiation intensity is used for definition of a source/sink

in the energy transport equation and radiation wall heat
fluxes
Energy spectrum of blackbody radiation

- frequency
c - speed of light
n - refraction index
h - Planck's constant
kB - Boltzmann's constant
integration over
the whole spectrum

93

IFS

Thermal radiation
Models

- Rosseland (primitive model, for optical thick systems, additional

diffusion term in the energy transport equation)

- P1 (strongly simplified radiation transport equation - solution of an

additional Laplace equation is required)

- Discrete Transfer (modern deterministic model,

assumes isotropic scattering, reasonably
homogeneous properties)

- Monte Carlo (modern statistical model, computationally

demanding)

94

Thermal radiation

IFS

Discrete Transfer
- modern deterministic model
- assumes isotropic scattering, homogeneous gas properties
- each wall cell works as a radiating surface that emits rays
through the surrounding space (separated onto multiple solid
angles)
- radiation intensity is integrated along each ray between the
walls of the simulation domain

- source/sink in the energy transport equation

95

Thermal radiation

IFS

Monte Carlo
- it assumes that the radiation intensity is proportional to
(differential angular) flux of photons
- radiation field can be modelled as a "photon gas"
- absorption constant Ka is the probability per unit length of
photon absorption at a given frequency
- average radiation intensity I is proportional to the photon
travelling distance in a unit volume and time
- radiation heat flux qrad is proportional to the number of
photon incidents on the surface in a unit time
- accuracy of the numerical simulation depends on the
number of used "photons"
96

Thermal radiation

IFS

These radiation methods can be used:

- for averaged radiation spectrum - grey gas
- for gas mixture, which can be separated onto multiple
grey gases (such grey gas is just a modelling concept)
- for individual frequency bands; physical parameters are
very different for each band

97

Thermal radiation

IFS

Flashover simulation

98

IFS
Conclusions

99

Conclusions

IFS

The seminar gave a short (but demanding) overview of

fluid mechanics and heat transfer theory that is relevant
for fire simulations
All current commercial CFD software packages (ANSYSCFX, ANSYS-Fluent, Star-CD, Flow3D, CFDRC, AVL Fire)
contain most of the shown models and methods:
- they are based on the finite volume or the finite element
method and they use transport equations in their
conservative form
- numerical grid is unstructured for greater geometrical
flexibility
- open-source computational packages exist and are freely
accessible (FDS, OpenFoam, SmartFire, Sophie)
100

Conclusions

IFS

I would like to remind you to the project "Methodology for

selection and use of fire models in preparation of fire
safety studies, and for intervention groups", sponsored by
Ministry of Defence, R. of Slovenia, which contains an
overview of functionalities that are offered in commercial
software products

101

Acknowledgement

IFS

I would like to thank to our hosts and especially to Ale Jug

I would like to thank to ANSYS Europe Ltd. (UK) who
permitted access to some of the graphical material

102