COMPUTER ORGANI

ZATION & ARCHITE

CTURE
By : Al Rafic E. Aboganda

Computer organization
= addresses issues such as control signals (how the computer is c
ontrolled), signaling methods, and memory types.
=It encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.
?

= It helps us to answer the question: How does a computer work

Computer Architecture
= focuses on the structure and behavior of the computer system
= refers to the logical aspects of system implementation as seen
by the programmer.
= includes many elements such as instruction sets and formats, o
peration codes, data types, the number and types of registers, add
ressing modes, main memory access methods, and various I/O me
chanisms. The architecture of a system directly affects the logical e
xecution of programs.
= helps us to answer the question: How do I design a computer

The computer architecture for a given machine i

s the combination of its hardware components
plus its instruction set architecture (ISA).

The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

= is the agreed-upon interface between all the
software that runs on the machine and the hard
ware that executes it.
= allows you to talk to the machine.

What is Computer ?
device that can be instructed to carry out
an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical
operations automatically.
The ability of computers to
follow a sequence of
operations, called a program,
make computers very
flexible and useful.

The Main Components of Computer

Principle of Equivalence of Hardware and Softw
are:
Anything that can be done with software can als
o be done with hardware, and anything
that can be done with hardware can also be do
ne with software.

The Main Components of

Computer
1. A processor to interpret and execute progra
ms
2. A memory to store both data and programs
3. A mechanism of transfering dara to and from
outside world.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Generation Zero: Mechanical
Calculating Machines (16421945)
ABACUS
= made of wood having a frame that holds rod
s w/ freely-sliding beads mounted on them
= used for counting ; not a calcutor as what w
e used today.

 CALCULATING CLOCK
=Wilhelm Schickard (15921635)
= able to add and subtract
numbers containing as many
as six digit.

PASCALINE
= In 1642, Blaise Pascal (16231662).

=do addition with carry and subtracti

on. It was probably the first mechanic
al adding device actually used for a pr
actical purpose

 STEPPED RECKONER
=Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz
=expanded Blaise Pascals ideas
and did multiplication by repeated
addition and shifting.

DIFFERENCE ENGINE
=Charles Babbage (17911871)
= calculator designed to tabulate

polynomial functions.
= method of divided differences,
a way to interpolate or tabulate
functions by using a small set of
polynomial coefficients

 ANALYTICAL ENGINE
= designed by Charles Babbage in 1883
=more versatile than his earlier Difference Engine.
n

= capable of performing any mathematical operatio

=include components:arithmetic processing unit to p

erform calculations (Babbage referred to this as the mi
ll), a memory (the store), and input and output devices

Charles Babbage (1791

1871)
Some people refer to Babbag
e as The Father of Computin
g"
= By all accounts, he was an
eccentric genius who brought
us, among other things, the s
keleton key and the cow catc
her, a device intended to pus
h cows and other movable ob
structions out of the way of lo
comotives

 Joseph-Marie Jacquard (17521834).

=invented a programmable weaving loom that could p
roduce intricate patterns in cloth
=Jacquard gave Babbage a tapestry that had been wov
en on this loom using more than 10,000 punched cards

Herman Hollerith (18601929)

=Holleriths machine was used for encoding and comp
iling 1890 census data
=founded the company that would become IBM
=Hollerith card - a 80-column punh card &was a stap
le of automated data processing for over 50 years.

The First Generation: Vacuum Tu

be Computers (19451953)
Zeus's computer(The Z1)
=Konrad Zuse (19101995), in 1930's, he picked up whe
re Babbage left off, adding electrical technology and oth
er improvements to Babbages design
=used electromechanical relays
instead of Babbages
hand-cranked gears
=programmable and add a
memory, an arithmetic unit,
and a control unit

Digital computers, as we know them today, are t

he outcome of work done by a number of peopl
e in the 1930s and 1940s. Pascals basic mechan
ical calculator was designed and modified simul
taneously by many people; tge same can be sai
d of the modern electronic conputers
John Atanasoff, John Mauchly, and J. Prespe
r Eckert
= the three people clearly who stand out as the invent
ors of modern computers

 The Attanasoff Berry Computer (ABC)

=John Atanasoff (19041995),credited with the construction of
the first completely electronic computer
=a binary machine built from vacuum tubes
=built specifically to solve systems of linear equations, so we c
annot call it a general-purpose computer

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

=recognized as the first all-electronic, general-purpose digit

al computer
= used 17,468 vacuum tubes, occupied 1,800 square feet of
floor space, weighed 30 tons, and consumed 174 kilowatts of
power
=memmory capacity of about 1,000 information bits (about
20 10-digit decimal numbers) and used punched cards to store
data.

 John Mauchly (19071980) and J. Presper

Eckert (19291995)
C

=were the two principle inventors of the ENIA

=designed their system to use base 10 numbe

rs, in keeping with the appearance of
building a huge electronic adding machine.

The Second Generation: Transistorized

Computers (19541965)
John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley

=in 1948, three researchers with Bell Laboratories invented

the TRANSISTOR
TRANSISTOR

=not only revolutionized devices such as televisions and rad

ios, but also pushed the computer industry into a new gener
ation
=consume less power than vacuum tubes, are smaller, and
work more reliably, the circuitry in computers consequently
became smaller and more reliable

 TRANSISTOR
= is a semiconductor device used to amplify or s
witch electronic signals and electrical power.
= is composed of semiconductor material usually
with at least three terminals for connection to an e
xternal circuit.

Plethora of Computer Makers IBM, Digital E

quipment Corporation (DEC), and Univac (n
ow Unisys)
IBM
= marketed the 7094 for scientific applications
and the 1401 for business applications
DEC
= was busy manufacturring the PDP-1

 UNIVAC (soon UNISYS)

=A company founded (but soon sold) by Mauchly and

Eckert built the Univac System
=The most successful Unisys systems of this generati
on belonged to its 1100 series
Control Data Corporation (CDC)

= another company,under the supervision of Seymou

r Cray
= built the CDC 6600
= worlds first supercomputer.
The $10 million CDC 6600 could perform 10 million i
nstructions per second, used 60-bit words, and had an
astounding 128 kilowords of main memory

The Third Generation: Integrated

Circuit Computers (19651980)
Integrated Circuit (IC) or
Microchip
=invented by Jack Kilby
=made of Germanium
=An IC can be made
much smaller than a discrete
circuit made
from independent electronic
components

 Silicon Chip
=created Robert Noyce (who had also been w
orking on integrated circuit design)
=similar device using silicon instead of germa
nium
= electronic equipment consisting of a small
crystal of a silicon semiconductor fabricated to
carry out a number
of electronic
functions in an
integrated circuit

 Early ICs allowed dozens of transistors to exist on

a single silicon chip that was smaller than a single
discrete component transistor.
e.g. Silicon Wafer

 Computers became faster, smaller, and cheaper, bri

nging huge gains in processing power.
The IBM System/360 family of computers was amo
ng the first commercially available systems to be bui
lt entirely of solid-state components.
The 360 product line was also IBMs first offering wh
ere all of the machines in the family were compatibl
e, meaning they all used on the same assembly lang
uage

 IC technology also allowed for the development of

more powerful supercomputers.

Seymour Cray took what he had learned while

building the CDC 6600 and started his own comp

any, the Cray Research Corporation. This company
produced a number of supercomputers, starting
with the $8.8 million Cray-1, in 1976. The Cray-1,
in stark contrast to the CDC 6600, could execute o
ver 160 million instructions per second and could
support 8 megabytes of memory_x0000_

The Fourth Generation: VLSI

Computers (1980????)_x00
00_

The Computer Hierarchy

Level
Level 6
User
Executable
Level 5
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2

Level 1

Language
High Level
Language
Assembly
Language
System
Software
Machine
Level

Program
C++, Java,
etc...
Assembly
Code
Operating
System,
Library Code

Instruction
Set
Architecture

Control Unit Microprogram

md or
Hardwired

The Computer Hierarchy

Level
Level 6: The User Level
>>is composed of applications and is the level with which e
veryone is most familiar. At this level, we run programs such
as word processors, graphics packages, or games. The lower l
evels are nearly invisible from the User Level.

Level 5: The High-level Language Level

>>consists of languages such as C, C++, FORTRAN, Lisp, Pas
cal, and Prolog. These languages must be translated (using ei
ther a compiler or an interpreter) to a language the machine
can understand. Compiled languages are translated into asse
mbly language and then assembled into machine code. (They
are translated to the next lower level)

 Level 4: The Assembly Language Level

>>encompasses some type of assembly language. As previo
usly mentioned, compiled higher-level languages are first tra
nslated to assembly, which is then directly translated to mac
hine language.
>> there is avery strong (generally one-to-one translations)
correspondence between the language and the architecture's
machine code instructions

Level 3: The System Software Level

>>deals with operating system instructions.
>> is responsible for multiprogramming, protecting memor
y, synchronizing processes, and various other important func
tions.
>> often, instructions translated from assembly language to
machine language are passed through this level unmodified.

 Level 2: Machine Level / Instructional Set Architecture Level

>> consists of the machine language recognized by the particular architecture of the c
omputer system.
>> programs written in machine language can be executed directly or need no compil
ers, interpreters, or assemblers

Level 1: The Control Level

>> A control unit decodes and executes instructions and moves data through the syste
m.
>> Control units can be microprogrammed or hardwired.
>> A microprogram is a program written in a low-level language that is implemented b
y the hardware.
>>Hardwired control units consist of hardware that directly executes machine instructi
ons.

Level 0: The Digital Logic Level

>> physical components of the computer system: the gates and wires. These are the f
undamental building blocks, the implementations of the mathematical logic, that are co
mmon to all computer systems.

John von Neumann

December 28, 1903 February 8,
1957

a Hungarian-American mathematici
an, physicist, inventor, computer sci
entist, and polymath.
a pioneer of the application of ope
rator theory to quantum mechanics
, in the development of functional a
nalysis, and a key figure in the deve
lopment of game theory and the co
ncepts of cellular automata, the uni
versal constructor and the digital co
mputer

Major Contributions
to a Number of Fields:
mathematics (foundations of mathematics, functio
nal analysis, ergodic theory, geometry, topology, an
d numerical analysis)
physics (quantum mechanics, hydrodynamics, and
quantum statistical mechanics)
economics (game theory)
statistics

computing (Von Neumann Architecture, linear pro

gramming, self-replicating machines, stochastic com
puting)

Von Neumann Architecture

a computer architecture
based on that described
in 1945 by the mathema
tician and physicist John
von Neumann
a design architecture for
an electronic digital com
puter with parts consisti
ng of a processing unit

Von Neumann Architecture

Scheme

Features of Von Neumann Architectur

e

Arithmetic Logic Unit

>> This part of the architecture is solely involved with ca
rrying out calculations upon the data. All the usual Add,
Multiply, Divide and Subtract calculations will be availabl
e but also data comparisons such as 'Greater Than', 'Les
s Than', 'Equal To' will be available.
Bus
>>In a modern computer built to the Von Neumann arch
itecture, information passes back and forth along a 'bus'
.
>>There are buses to identify locations in memory -- a
n 'address bus'
& there are buses to allow the flow of data & program inst
ructions - a 'data bus'

Computer Architecture
Baer: The design of the integrated
system which provides a useful tool to
the programmer

Hayes: The study of the structure,

behavior and design of computers
Abd-Alla: The design of the system
specification at a general or subsystem
level

Computer Architecture
In computer engineering, computer architectu
re is a set of rules and methods that describe t
he functionality, organization, and implementa
tion of computer systems.
Describes the capabilities and
programming model of a computer but not
a particular implementation.

Computer Architecture
Covers 3 Aspects of Computer Design
Instruction Set Architecture
>> Programmer visible instruction sets
>> Boundary between software and hardware

Organization
>> High-level aspects of computer design
e.g. CPU internal organization
Bus structure
Memory organization

Hardware
>> Implementation specifics of a machine
e.g. Logic design and Packing technology

Computer organization

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit

Memory
>>The computer will have memory that can hold both data and also th
e program processing that data. In modern computers this memory is
RAM.
Control Unit
The control unit
>> manage the process of moving data and program into and out of
memory and also deal with carrying out (executing) program instructio
ns - one at a time. This includes the idea of a 'register' to hold interme
diate values.
Input / Output
>>This architecture allows for the idea that a person needs to interac
t with the machine. Whatever values that are passed to and forth are
stored once again in some internal registers.

I/O devices

Monitor

Software

Application Software

Operating System

Translation System

Software Development Activiti

es

Software Development Cycle

Integrated Development Envir

onment (IDE's)

CISC / RISC Architecture

What is RISC and CISC Architectures ?
Hardware designers invent numerous technologies
& tools to implement the desired architecture in order
to fulfill these needs.
Hardware architecture may be implemented to be ei
ther hardware specific or software specific, but accord
ing to the application both are used in the required qu
antity. As far as the processor hardware is concerned,
there are 2 types of concepts to implement the proces
sor hardware architecture. First one is RISC and other
is CISC.

CISC / RISC Architecture

Central Processing Unit Architecture operates
the capacity to work from Instruction Set Arc
hitecture to where it was designed.
The architectural designs of CPU are
CISC (Complex instruction set computing)
and RISC (Reduced instruction set computing).

Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC )
Architecture
has the ability to execute addressing modes or
multi-step operations within one instruction set.
It is the design of the CPU where one instructio
n performs many low-level operations.
eg. memory storage, an arithmetic operation
and loading from memory

Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC )
Architecture
has a large number of complex instructions, w
hich takes long time to execute.
Here, a single set of instruction is covered in
multiple steps; each instruction set has more t
han three hundred separate instructions. Most
instructions are completed in two to ten machi
ne cycles.
In CISC, instruction pipelining is not easily im
plemented forming multi-step operations.

Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC )
Architecture
was developed to make compiler development
simpler. It shifts most of the burden of genera
ting machine instructions to the processor.
For example,
instead of having to make a compiler write lon
g machine instructions to calculate a square-r
oot, a CISC processor would have a built-in abi
lity to do this.

Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC )
Architecture
CHARACTERISTICS OF CISC ARCHITECTURE
Instruction-decoding logic will be Complex.
One instruction is required to support multiple addressi
ng modes.
Less chip space is enough for general purpose registe
rs for the instructions that are 0operated directly on me
mory.
Various CISC designs are set up two special registers f

Complex Instruction Set

Computer (CISC )
Architecture
Examples of CISC PROCESSORS
1. IBM 370/168 It was introduced in the year 1970. CISC
design is a 32 bit processor and four 64-bit floating point r
egisters.
2. VAX 11/780 CISC design is a 32-bit processor and it su
pports many numbers of addressing modes and machine i
nstructions which is from Digital Equipment Corporation.
3. Intel 80486 It was launched in the year 1989 and it is
a CISC processor, which has instructions varying lengths fr

Reduced Instruction Set Comp

uter (RISC) Architecture