5-1
Sampling Theory
Chapter 5
Theory & Problems of
Probability & Statistics
Murray R. Spiegel
5-2
Outline Chapter 5
Population X
mean and variance - , 2
Sample
mean and variance X, ^s2
Sample Statistics
X mean and variance x, x
2
s
s
^s mean and variance
2
5-3
Outline Chapter 5
Distributions
Population
Samples Statistics
Mean
Proportions
Differences and Sums
Variances
Ratios of Variances
5-4
Outline Chapter 5
Other ways to organize samples
Frequency Distributions
Relative Frequency Distributions
Computation Statistics for Grouped Data
mean
variance
standard deviation
5-5
Population Parameters
A population - random variable X
probability distribution (function) f(x)
probability function
- discrete variable f(x)
density function
- continuous variable
f(x) function of several parameters, i.e.:
mean: ,
variance: 2
want to know parameters for each f(x)
5-6
Example of a Population
5 project engineers in department
total experience of (X) 2, 3, 6, 8, 11 years
company performing statistical report
employees expertise based on experience
survey must include:
average experience
variance
standard deviation
5-7
Mean of Population
average experience mean:
2 3 6 8 11 30
6 years
5
5
5-8
Variance of Population
(x i )
variance:
2
2
2
2
2
(
2
6
)
(
3
6
)
(
6
6
)
(
8
6
)
(
11
6
)
2
5
16 9 0 4 25
10.8
5
2
5-9
Standard Deviation of Population
standard deviation:
s.d .
2
s.d . 10.8
10.8 3.29
5-10
Sample Statistics
What if dont have whole population
Take random samples from population
estimate population parameters
make inferences
lets see how
How much experience in company
hire for feasibility study
performance study
5-11
Sampling Example
manager assigns engineers at random
each time chooses first engineer she sees
same engineer could do both
lets say she picks (2,2)
mean of sample X= (2+2)/2 = 2
you want to make inferences about true
5-12
Samples of 2
replacement she will go to project department twice
pick engineer randomly
potentially 25 possible teams
25 samples of size two
5 * 5 = 25
order matters (6, 11) is different from (11, 6)
5-13
Population of Samples
All possible combinations are:
(2,2)
(2,3)
(2,6)
(2,8)
(2,11)
(3,2)
(3,3)
(3,6)
(3,8)
(3,11)
(6,2)
(6,3)
(6,6)
(6,8)
(6,11)
(8,2)
(8,3)
(8,6)
(8,8)
(8,11)
(11,2)
(11,3)
(11,6)
(11,8)
(11,11)
5-14
Population of Averages
Average experience or sample means are: Xi
(2)
(2.5)
(3)
(5)
(6.5)
(2.5)
(3)
(4.5)
(5.5)
(7)
(3)
(4.5)
(6)
(7)
(8.5)
(5)
(5.5)
(7)
(8)
(9.5)
(6.5)
(7)
(8.5)
(9.5)
(11)
5-15
Mean of Population Means
And mean of sampling distribution of means is :
(2) (2.5) (3) (5) ... (11) 150
X
6
25
25
This confirms theorem that states:
E( X ) X 6
5-16
Variance of Sample Means
variance of sampling distribution of means ( Xi - X)2
(2-6)2
(2.5-6)2
(2.5-6)2 (3-6)2
(3-6)2
(5-6)2
(4.5-6)2 (5.5-6)2
(6.5-6)2
(7-6)2
(3-6 )
(4.5-6)2 (6-6)2
(7-6)2
(8.5-6)2
(5-6 )2
(5.5-6)2 (7-6)2
(8-6)2
(9.5-6)2
(6.5-6 )2 (7-6)2
(8.5-6)2 (9.5-6 )2 (11-6)2
5-17
Variance of Sample Means
Calculating values:
16
12.25
0.25
12.25
2.25
0.25
2.25
6.25
0.25
12.25
0.25
6.25
12.25
25
5-18
Variance of Sample Means
variance is:
2
(
X
X
)
135
2
i
X
5. 4
n
25
Therefore standard deviation is
X 5.4 2.32
5-19
Variance of Sample Means
These results hold for theorem:
2
X
Where n is size of samples. Then we see that:
10.8
5.40
n
2
2
2
X
5-20
Math Proof
X mean
X = X1 + X2 + X 3 + . . . Xn
n
E( X) = E(X1) + E(X2)+ E(X3) + . . . E(Xn)
n
E( X) = + + + . . .
n
E( X) =
5-21
Math Proof
X variance
X = X1 + X2 + X 3 + . . . Xn
n
Var( X) = 2 x = 2x + 2x + 2x + . . . 2x
n2
=
5-22
Sampling Means No Replacement
manager picks two engineers at same time
order doesn't matter
order (6, 11) is same as order (11, 6)
10 choose 2
5!/(2!)(5-2)! = 10
10 possible teams, or 10 samples of size two.
5-23
Sampling Means No Replacement
All possible combinations are:
(2,3)
(2,6)
(2,8) (2,11) (3,6)
(3,8) (3,11) (6,8) (6,11) (8,11)
corresponding sample means are:
(2.5) (3)
(5)
(6.5) (4.5)
(5.5) (7)
(7)
(8.5) (9.5)
mean of corresponding sample of means is:
2.5 3 5 ... 9.5
X
6
10
5-24
Sampling Variance No Replacement
variance of sampling distribution of means is:
( X i X ) ( 2.5 6) (4 6) ... (9.5 6)
4.05
2
2
X
10
standard deviation is:
(Xi X)
X
4.05 2.01
2
2
X
5-25
Theorems on Sampling
Distributions with No Replacements
1.
X 6
2.
N n 10.8 5 2 10.8 3
2
X
4.05
n N 1
2 5 1
2 4
5-26
Sum Up Theorems on
Sampling Distributions
Theorem I:
Expected values sample mean = population mean
E( X ) = x =
: mean of population
Theorem II:
infinite population or sampling with replacement
variance of sample is
E[( X- )2] = x2 = 2/n
2: variance of population
5-27
Theorems on Sampling
Distributions
Theorem III: population size is N
sampling with no replacement
sample size is n
then sample variance is:
2
N n
2
x
n N 1
5-28
Theorems on Sampling
Distributions
Theorem IV: population normally distributed
mean , variance 2
then sample mean normally distributed
mean , variance 2/n
X
Z
N( 0,1)
5-29
Theorems on Sampling
Distributions
Theorem V:
samples are taken from distribution
mean , variance 2
(not necessarily normal distributed)
standardized variables
X
Z
n
asymptotically normal
5-30
Sampling Distribution of
Proportions
Population properties:
* Infinite
* Binomially Distributed
( p success; q=1-p fail)
Consider all possible samples of size n
statistic for each sample
= proportion P of success
5-31
Sampling Distribution
of Proportions
Sampling distribution of proportions of:
mean:
P p
std. deviation:
pq
p(1 p )
n
5-32
Sampling Distribution of
Proportions
large values of n (n>30)
sample distribution for P
approximates normal distribution
finite population sample without replacing
standardized P is
Pp
Z
pq
n
5-33
Example Proportions
Oil service company
explores for oil
according to geological department
37% chances of finding oil
drill 150 wells
P(0.4<P<0.6)=?
5-34
Example Proportions
P(0.4<P<0.6)=?
Pp
Z
pq
n
P(0.4-0.37
< P-.37 < 0.6-0.37)
=?
(.37*.63/150).5 (pq/n).5 (.37*.63/150).5
5-35
Example Proportions
P(0.4<P<0.6)=P(0.24<Z<1.84)
=normsdist(1.84)-normsdist(0.24)= 0.372
Think about mean, variance and distribution of
np the number of successes
5-36
Sampling Distribution of
Sums & Differences
Suppose we have two populations.
Population
XA XB
Sample of size nA
nB
Compute statistic
SA
SB
Samples are independent
Sampling distribution for SA and SB gives
mean:
SA
variance:
SB
SA2
SB2
5-37
Sampling Distribution of Sums
and Differences
combination of 2 samples from 2 populations
sampling distribution of differences
S = SA +/- SB
For new sampling distribution we have:
mean:
S = SA +/- SB
variance:
S2 = SA2 + SB2
5-38
Sampling Distribution of
Sums and Differences
two populations XA and XB
SA= XA and SB = XB sample means
mean:
XA+XB = XA + XB = A + B
variance:
2
XA X B
nA nB
Sampling from infinite population
Sampling with replacement
2
A
2
B
5-39
Example Sampling Distribution
of Sums
You are leasing oil fields from
two companies for two years
lease expires at end of each year
randomly assigned a new lease for next year
Company A - two oil fields
production XA: 300, 700 million barrels
Company B two oil fields
production XB: 500, 1100 million barrels
5-40
Population Means
Average oil field size of company A:
300 700
XA
500
2
Average oil field size of company B:
XB
500 1100
800
2
XA XB 500 800 1300
5-41
Population Variances
Company A - two oil fields
production XA: 300, 700 million barrels
Company B two oil fields
production XB: 500, 1100 million barrels
XA2 = (300 500)2 + (700 500)2/2 = 40,000
XB2 = (500 800)2 + (1100 800)2/2 = 90,000
5-42
Example Sampling Distribution
of Sums
Interested in total production: XA + XB
Compute all possible leases assignments
Two choices XA, Two choices XB
XAi
XBi
{300, 500}
{300, 1100}
{700, 500}
{700, 1100}
5-43
Example Sampling Distribution
of Sums
XAi
XBi
{300, 500}
{300, 1100}
{700, 500}
{700, 1100}
Then for each of the 4 possibilities
4 choices year 1, four choices year 2 = 4*4 samples
5-44
Example Sampling Distribution
of Sums
Samples
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
XAi
300
300
300
300
300
700
300
700
XBi
500
500
500
1100
500
500
500
1100
XAi
300
300
300
300
300
700
300
700
XBi
1100
500
1100
1100
1100
500
1100
1100
5-45
Example Sampling Distribution
of Sums
Samples
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
XAi
700
300
700
300
700
700
700
700
XBi
500
500
500
1100
500
500
500
1100
XAi
700
300
700
300
700
700
700
700
XBi
1100
500
1100
1100
1100
500
1100
1100
5-46
Compute Sum and Means of each
sample
Means
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
XAi+XBi Mean
800
800
800
800 1100
1400
800 1000
1200
800 1300
1800
XAi+XBi Mean
1400 1100
800
1400 1400
1400
1400 1300
1200
1400 1600
1800
5-47
Compute Sum and Means of each
Sample
Means
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
Year 1
Year 2
XAi+XBi Mean
1200
1000
800
1200
1300
1400
1200
1200
1200
1200
1500
1800
XAi+XBi Mean
1800 1300
800
1800 1600
1400
1800 1500
1200
1800 1800
1800
5-48
Mean of Sum of Sample Means
Population of Samples
{800, 1100, 1000, 1300, 1100, 1400, 1300, 1600, 1000, 1300,
1200, 1500, 1300, 1600, 1500, 1800}
_______
XAi+XBi =
(800 + 1100 + 1000 + 1300 + 1100 + 1400 + 1300 + 1600 +
1000 + 1300 + 1200 + 1500 + 1300 + 1600 + 1500 + 1800)
16
= 1300
5-49
Mean of Sum of Sample Means
This illustrates theorem on means
_____
(XA+XB)= 1300= XA+ XB = 500 + 800 = 1300
_____
What about variances of XA+XB
5-50
Variance of Sum of Means
Population of samples
{800, 1100, 1000, 1300, 1100, 1400, 1300, 1600, 1000, 1300,
1200, 1500, 1300, 1600, 1500, 1800}
2 = {(800 - 1300)2 + (1100 - 1300)2 + (1000 - 1300)2 +
(1300 - 1300)2 + (1100 - 1300)2 + (1400 - 1300)2 + (13001300)2 + (1600 - 1300)2 + (1000 - 1300)2 + (1300 - 1300)2 +
(1200 - 1300)2 + (1500 - 1300)2 + (1300 - 1300)2 + (1600 1300)2 + (1500 - 1300)2 + (1800 - 1300)2}/16
= 65,000
5-51
Variance of Sum of Means
This illustrates theorem on variances
2
XA X B
nA nB
2
A
2
B
40000 90,000
65,000
2
2
5-52
Normalize to Make Inferences on
Means
XA XB A B
A B
na nB
2
5-53
Estimators for Variance
Two choices
2
2
2
(
X
X
)
(
X
X
)
...
(
X
X
)
2
n
S2 1
n
use for populations
(
X
X
)
(
X
X
)
...
(
X
X
)
1
2
n
S
n 1
2
2
2
E (S )
unbiased better for smaller samples
5-54
Sampling Distribution of Variances
All possible random samples of size n
each sample has a variance
all possible variances
give sampling distribution of variances
sampling distribution of related random variable
nS 2 ( n 1)S 2 ( X 1 X ) 2 ( X 2 X ) 2 ... ( X n X ) 2
2
2
5-55
Example Population of Samples
All possible teams are:
(2,2)
(2,3)
(2,6)
(2,8)
(2,11)
(3,2)
(3,3)
(3,6)
(3,8)
(3,11)
(6,2)
(6,3)
(6,6)
(6,8)
(6,11)
(8,2)
(8,3)
(8,6)
(8,8)
(8,11)
(11,2)
(11,3)
(11,6)
(11,8)
(11,11)
5-56
Compute Variance for Each Sample
sample variance corresponding to each of 25 possible
choice that manager makes are: ^s2
0
0.25
20.25
.25
2.25
6.25
16
2.25
6.25
6.25
2.25
6.25
2.25
20.25 16
(2 6.5) 2 (11 6.5) 2
20.25
2
5-57
Sampling Distribution of Variance
Population of Variances
mean
variance
distribution
(n-1)s2/ 2 2n-1
5-58
What if Unknown Population
Variance?
X is Normal (, 2)
to make inference on means we normalize
X
Z
5-59
Unknown Population Variance
2
( n 1) S
2
2
n
2
( n 1) S
2
t n 1
S
n
5-60
Unknown Population Variance
X
P ( t n 1 , c 1
t n 1 , c 2 )
S
n
Use in the same way as for normal
except use different Tables
= 0.05
n = 25, =tinv(0.05,24)= 2.0639
P( 2.0639
-2.06
2.06
X
2.0639 ) 1 0.05
S
n
5-61
Uses t -statistics
Will use for testing
means, sums, and differences of means
small samples when variable is normal
substitute sample variance in for true
X
X
Z
t n 1
s
n
n
5-62
Uses t -statistics
sums and differences of means
X 1 X 2 ( 1 2 )
N( 0,1)
2
2
1 2
n1 n 2
unknown variance
X 1 X 2 ( 1 2 )
t n n 2
2
2
n1 - 1 s1 n 2 - 1 s 2 n1 n 2
n1 n 2 - 2
n1 n 2
1
5-63
Uses 2 statistic
Inference on Variance
Large sample test
2
( n 1) S
2
2
5-64
F Statistic
Inferences
2df1/df1 =
2df2/df2
s
Fdf 1,df 2
s
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
( n1 1)s12
2
1
2
( n 2 1)s 2
2
( n1 1)
( n 2 1)
F Statistic
5-65
Other tests
groups of coefficients
5-66
Other Statistics
.
Medians
med
1.2533
2n
n
n > 30, sample distribution of medians
nearly normal if X is normal
med
5-67
Frequency Distributions
If sample or population is large
difficult to compute statistics
(i.e. mean, variance, etc)
Organizing RAW DATA is useful
arrange into CLASSES or categories
determine number in each class
Class Frequency or Frequency Distribution
5-68
Frequency Distributions - Example
Example of Frequency Distribution:
middle size oil company
portfolio of 100 small oil reservoirs
reserves vary from 89 to 300 million barrels
5-69
Frequency Distributions - Example
arrange data into categories
create table showing ranges of reservoirs sizes
number of reservoirs in each range
Reserves
50-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
251-300
TOTAL
Number of
Fields
4
21
42
27
6
100
5-70
Frequency Distributions - Example
Class intervals are in ranges of 50 million barrels
Each class interval represented by median value
e.g. 200 up to 250 will be represented by 225
Can plot data
histogram
polygon
This plot is represents frequency distribution
5-71
Frequency Distributions Plotted Example
50-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
251-300
TOTAL
45
40
35
30
No. of Fields
Reserves
Number of
Fields
4
21
42
27
6
100
25
20
15
10
5
0
25
75
125
175
Reserves (mmb)
225
275
325
5-72
Relative Frequency Distributions
and Ogives
number of individuals
- frequency distribution
- empirical probability distribution
percentage of individual
- relative frequency distribution
empirical cumulative probability distribution
- ogive
5-73
Percent Ogives
OGIVE for oil company portfolio of reservoirs
Shows percent reservoirs < than x reserves
5-74
Computation of Statistics for
Grouped Data
can calculate mean and variance
from grouped data
5-75
Computation of Statistics for
Grouped Data
take 420 samples of an ore body
measure % concentration of Zinc (Zn)
frequency distribution of lab results
5-76
Computation of Statistics for
Grouped Data
% Weight
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
Frequency
2
5
11
21
33
41
53
42
38
31
34
% Weight
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
Frequency
28
14
22
18
15
4
2
2
3
1
TOTAL
420
5-77
Computation of Statistics
for Grouped Data
mean will then be:
fx
f1x1 f2x 2 ... fk x k
n
n
n fi f1 f2 ... fk
i i
And in our example:
fx
i i
1.00 * 2 1.05 * 5 ... 1.45 * 31 ... 2.00 * 1
1.40
420
5-78
Computation of Statistics for
Grouped Data
variance will then be:
fi ( x i x ) f1 ( x 1 x ) f2 ( x 2 x ) ... fk ( x k x )
5-79
Computation of Statistics for
Grouped Data
And in our example:
2
f
(
x
x
)
S2 i i
n
2
2
2
2
(
1
.
00
1
.
40
)
5
(
1
.
05
1
.
40
)
....
1
(
2
.
00
1
.
40
)
2
S
420
2
S 0.0365
5-80
Computation of Statistics
for Grouped Data
Similar formula are available for higher moments:
mr
fi ( x i x )
n
f1 ( x1 x ) f2 ( x 2 x ) ... fk ( x k x )
n
r
fx
i i
f1x1 f2x 2 ... fk x k
5-81
Sum up Chapter 5
Population X
mean and variance - , 2
distribution
A Sample
statistic from sample
usually mean and variance X, ^s2
5-82
Sum up Chapter 5
Sample Statistics
X mean and variance x,
^s2 mean and variance ^s2, ^s 2
Distribution
5-83
Sum Up Chapter 5
Samples Statistics
Mean X ~ , 2/n
Distribution
X
X
Z
t n 1
s
n
n
5-84
Sum Up Chapter 5
Samples Statistics
Proportions P ~ p, p(1-p)/n
n>30
Distribution
Pp
Z
pq
n
5-85
Sum Up Chapter 5
Samples Statistics
Differences and Sums
X1+/- X2 ~ 1 + 2, 12/n1 + 22/n2
Distribution
X 1 X 2 ( 1 2 )
N( 0,1)
2
2
1 2
n1 n 2
X 1 X 2 ( 1 2 )
t n n 2
2
2
n1 - 1 s1 n 2 - 1 s 2 n1 n 2
n1 n 2 - 2
n1 n 2
1
5-86
Sum Up Chapter 5
Samples Statistics
Variances
Distribution
n2 1
( n 1) S 2
Mean = n-1
Variance = 2(n-1)
5-87
Sum Up Chapter 5
Samples Statistics
Ratios of Variances
s
Fdf 1,df 2
s
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
5-88
Sum up Chapter 5
Other ways to organize samples
Frequency Distributions
Relative Frequency Distributions
Computation Statistics for Grouped Data
mean
variance
standard deviation
5-89
THATS ALL FOR
CHAPTER 5
THANK YOU!!
