The Game Development
Process
Game Programming
Outline
Teams and Processes
Select Languages
Debugging
Misc (as time allows)
AI
Multiplayer
Introduction
Used to be programmers created games
But many great programmers not great
game makers
With budget shift, emphasis has shifted
Game content creators are artist and
designers
Programmers can be thought of as
providing services for content
But fate of entire game rests in their hands
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Programming Areas Game Code
Everything directly related to game itself
How camera behaves, score is kept, AI for
bots, etc.
Often in scripting language (rest is in C++,
more on languages next)
Produce faster iterations
Allow technical designers/artists to change
behaviors
More appropriate language for domain (ex:
AI probably not easiest in C++)
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Programming Areas Game Engine
Support code that is not game specific
More than just drawing pretty 3d graphics
(that is actually the graphics engine, part of
the game engine)
Isolate game code from hardware
ex: controller, graphics, sound
Allows designers to concentrate on game
Common functionality needed across game
Serialization, network communication,
pathfinding, collision detection
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Programming Areas Tools
Most involve content creation
Some to automate repetitive tasks (ex: convert
content to game format)
Level editors, particle effect editors, sound editors
These usually have no GUI
Sometimes written as plug-ins for off-the-shelf
tools
Ex: extensions to Maya or 3dStudio or Photoshop
If no such extension available, build from scratch
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Programming Team Organization
Programmers often specialize
May be generalists, know something about
everything
Graphics, networking, AI
Often critical for glue to hold specialists together
Make great lead programmers
More than 3 or 4, need some organization
More than 10 programmers, several leads
(graphics lead, AI lead, etc.)
Often lead programmer, much time devoted to
management
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Software Methodologies
Code and Fix
Waterfall
Iterative
Agile
(Take cs3733, Software Engineering)
Methodologies Code and Fix
Really, lack of a methodology
Little or no planning, diving straight into
implementation
Reactive, no proactive
End with bugs. If bugs faster than can fix, death
spiral and may be cancelled
Even those that make it, must have crunch time
And all too common
viewed after as badge of honor, but results in
burnout
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Methodologies - Waterfall
Plan ahead
Proceed through various planning steps
before implementation
requirements analysis, design,
implementation, testing (validation),
integration, and maintenance
The waterfall loops back as fixes required
Can be brittle to changing functionality,
unexpected problems in implementation
Going back to beginning
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Methodologies - Iterative
Develop for a period of time (1-2 months),
get working game, add features
Periods can coincide with publisher
milestones
Allows for some planning
Time period can have design before
implementation
Allows for some flexibility
Can adjust (to new technical challenges or
producer demands)
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Methodologies - Agile
Admit things will change, avoid looking too
far in the future
Value simplicity and the ability to change
Can scale, add new features, adjust
Relatively new for game development
Big challenge is hard to convince publishers
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Common Practices Version Control
Database containing files and past history
of them
Central location for all code
Allows team to work on related files
without overwriting each others work
History preserved to track down errors
Branching and merging for platform
specific parts
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Common Practices Quality (1 of 2)
Code reviews walk through code by other
programmer(s)
Formal or informal
Two eyes are better than one
Value is programmer aware others read
Asserts
Force program to crash to help debugging
Ex: Check condition is true at top of code, say
pointer not NULL before following
Removed during release
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Common Practices Quality (2 of 2)
Unit tests
Acceptance tests
Low level test of part of game (Ex: see if physics computations
correct)
Tough to wait until very end and see if bug
Often automated, computer runs through combinations
Verify before assembling
Verify high-level functionality working correctly (Ex: see if
levels load correctly)
Note, above are programming tests (ie- code, technical). Still
turned over to testers that track bugs, do gameplay testing.
Bug database
Document and track bugs
Can be from programmers, publishers, customers
Classify by severity
Keeps bugs from falling through cracks
Helps see how game is progressing
Based on Chapter 3.1, Introduction to Game Development
Outline
Teams and Processes
Select Languages
Debugging
Misc (as time allows)
AI
Multiplayer
(done)
(next)
C++ (1 of 3)
Mid-late 1990s, C was language of choice
Since then, C++ language of choice for games
First commercial release in 1985 (AT&T)
List pros (+) and cons (-)
(Take cs2102 OO Design Concepts or cs4233 OOAD)
+ C Heritage
Learning curve easier
Compilers wicked fast
+ Performance
Used to be most important, but less so (but still for core
parts)
Maps closely to hardware (can guess what assembly
instructions will be)
Can not use features to avoid cost, if want (ie- virtual
function have extra step but dont have to use)
Memory management controlled by user
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
C++ (2 of 3)
+ High-level
Classes (objects), polymorphism, templates,
exceptions
Especially important as code-bases enlarge
Strongly-typed (helps reduce errors)
ex: declare before use, and const
+ Libraries
C++ middleware readily available
OpenGL, DirectX, Standard Template Library
(containers, like vectors, and algorithms, like sort)
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
C++ (3 of 3)
- Too Low-level
Still force programmer to deal with low-level issues
ex: memory management, pointers
- Too complicated
Years of expertise required to master (other languages
seek to overcome, like Java and C#)
- Lacking features
No built-in way to look at object instances
No built-in way to serialize
Forces programmer to build such functionality (or learn
custom or 3rd party library)
- Slow iteration
Brittle, hard to try new things
Code change can take a looong time as can compile
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
C++ (Summary)
When to use?
Any code where performance is crucial
Used to be all, now game engine such as
graphics and AI
Game-specific code often not C++
Legacy code base, expertise
When also use middle-ware libraries in C++
When not to use?
Tool building (GUIs tough)
High-level game tasks (technical designers)
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Java (1 of 3)
Java popular, but only recently so for games
Invented in 1990 by Sun Microsystems
+ Concepts from C++ (objects, classes)
Powerful abstractions
+ Cleaner language
Memory management built-in
Templates not as messy
Object functions, such as virtualization
+ Code portability (JVM)
(Hey, draw picture)
+ Libraries with full-functionality built-in
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Java (2 of 3)
- Performance
Interpreted, garbage collection, security
So take 4x to 10x hit
+ Can overcome with JIT compiler, Java
Native Interface (not interpreted)
- Platforms
JVM, yeah, but not all games (most PC
games not, nor consoles)
+ Strong for browser-games, mobile
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Java (3 of 3)
Used in:
Downloadable/Casual games
PopCap games
Mummy Maze, Seven Seas, Diamond Mine
Yahoo online games (WorldWinner)
Poker, Blackjack
PC
Star Wars Galaxies
uses Java (and simplified Java
for scripting language)
You Dont Know Jack and Who Wants to be a
Millionaire all Java
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Scripting Languages (1 of 3)
Not compiled, rather specify (script) sequence of actions
Most games rely upon some
Trigger a few events, control cinematic
Others games may use it lots more
Control game logic and behavior (Game Maker has GML)
+ Ease of development
Low-level things taken care of
Fewer errors by programmer
- But script errors tougher, often debuggers worse
Less technical programming required
Still, most scripting done by programmers
Iteration time faster (dont need to re-compile all code)
Can be customized for game (ex: just AI tasks)
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Scripting Languages (2 of 3)
+ Code as an asset
Ex: consider Peon in C++, with behavior in C++, maybe art as an
asset. Script would allow for behavior to be an asset also
Can be easily modified, even by end-user in mod
- Performance
Parsed and executed on the fly
Hit could be 10x or more over C++
Less efficient use of instructions, memory management
-Tool support
Not as many debuggers, IDEs
Errors harder to catch
- Interface with rest of game
Core in C++, must export interface
Can be limiting way interact
(Hey, draw picture)
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Scripting Languages (3 of 3)
Python
Interpreted, OO, many libraries, many tools
Quite large (bad when memory constrained)
Ex: Blade of Darkness, Earth and Beyond, Eve Online,
Civilization 4 (Table 3.2.1 full list)
Lua (pronounced: Loo-ah)
Not OO, but small (memory). Embed in other programs.
Doesnt scale well.
Ex: Grim Fandango, Baldurs Gate, Far Cry (Table 3.2.2
full list)
Others:
Ruby, Perl, JavaScript
Custom: GML, QuakeC, UnrealScript
Implementing own tough, often performs poorly so careful!
Based on Chapter 3.2, Introduction to Game Development
Macromedia Flash (1 of 2)
More of a platform and IDE (ala Game Maker) than a
language (still, has ActionScript)
Flash refers authoring environment, the player, or the
application files
Released 1997, popular with Browser bundles by 2000
Advantages
Wide audience (nearly all platforms have Flash player)
Easy deployment (embed in Web page)
Rapid development (small learning curve, for both artists
and programmers)
Disadvantages
3D games
Performance (interpreted, etc.)
Based on Chapter 3.3, Introduction to Game Development
Macromedia
Flash (2 of 2)
Timeline Based
Vector Engine
Scripting
Frames and Frame rate (like animations)
Programmers indicate when (time) event occurs (can
occur across many frames)
Lines, vertices, circles
Can be scaled to any size, still looks crisp
ActionScript similar to JavaScript
Classes (as of Flash v2.0)
Backend connectivity (load other Movies, URLs)
Based on Chapter 3.3, Introduction to Game Development
Outline
Teams and Processes
Select Languages
Debugging
Misc (as time allows)
AI
Multiplayer
(done)
(done)
(next)
Debugging Introduction
New Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
have debugging tools
Trace code, print values, profile
But debugging frustrating
Dont know how long takes to find
Mini-outline
Beginners not know how to proceed
Even advanced can get stuck
Variance can be high
5-step debugging process
Debugging tips
Touch scenarios and patterns
Prevention
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Step 1: Reproduce the Problem
Consistently
Find case where always occurs
Sometimes game crashes after kill boss
doesnt help much
Identify steps to get to bug
Ex: start single player, skirmish map 44,
find enemy camp, use projectile weapon
Produces systematic way to reproduce
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Step 2: Collect Clues
Collect clues as to bug
But beware that some clues are false
Ex: if bug follows explosion may think they are
related, but may be from something else
Ex: if crash using projectile, what about that code
that makes it possible to crash?
Dont spend too long, get in and observe
Ex: see reference pointer from arrow to unit that
shot arrow should get experience points, but it is
may be NULL
Thats the bug, but why is it NULL?
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Step 3: Pinpoint Error
Propose a hypothesis and prove or disprove
Or, divide-and-conquer method (note, can use in
conjunction with hypo-test above, too)
Ex: suppose arrow pointer corrupted during flight. Add
code to print out values of arrow in air. But equals same
value that crashes. Wrong.
Ex: suppose unit deleted before experience point. Print
out values of all in camp before fire and all deleted. Yep,
thats it.
Sherlock Holmes when you have eliminated the
impossible, whatever remains, however improbably, must
be the truth
Setting breakpoints, look at all values, until discover bug
The divide part means break it into smaller sections
Ex: if crash, put breakpoint way.
Repeat
Is it before or after?
Look for anomalies, NULL or NAN values
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Step 4: Repair the Problem
Propose solution. Exact solution depends upon
stage of problem.
Ex: late in code cannot change data structures. Too
many other parts use.
Worry about ripple effects.
Ideally, want original coder to fix. At least, talk
with original coder for insights.
Consider other similar cases, even if not yet
reported
Ex: other projectiles may cause same problem as
arrows did
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Step 5: Test Solution
Obvious, but can be overlooked if
programmer is sure they have fix (but
programmer can be wrong!)
So, test that fix repairs bug
Best by independent tester
Test if other bugs introduced (beware
ripple effect)
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Debugging Tips (1 of 3)
Question your assumptions dont even
assume simple stuff works, or mature
products
Ex: libraries can have bugs
Minimize interactions systems can
interfere, make slower so isolate the bug
to avoid complications
Minimize randomness ex, can be caused
by random seed or player input. Fix input
(script player) so reproducible
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Debugging Tips (2 of 3)
Break complex calculations into steps may
be equation that is fault or cast badly
Check boundary conditions classic off by
one for loops, etc.
Disrupt parallel computations race
conditions if happen at same time (cs3013)
Use debugger breakpoints, memory
watches, stack
Check code recently changed if bug
appears, may be in latest code (not even
yours!)
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Debugging Tips (3 of 3)
Take a break too close, cant see it.
Remove to provide fresh prospective
Explain bug to someone else helps retrace
steps, and others provide alternate
hypotheses
Debug with partner provides new
techniques
Get outside help tech support for
consoles, libraries,
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Tough Debugging Scenarios and
Patterns (1 of 2)
Bug in Release but not in Debug
Often in initialized code
Or in optimized code
Turn on optimizations one-by-one
Bug in Hardware but not in Dev Kit
Bug Disappears when Changing Something
Innocuous
Usually dev kit has extra memory (for tracing, etc.).
Suggest memory problem (pointers), stack overflow,
not checking memory allocation
Likely timing problem (race condition) or memory
problem
Even if looks like gone, probably just moved. So keep
looking
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Tough Debugging Scenarios and
Patterns (2 of 2)
Truly Intermittent Problems
Unexplainable Behavior
Bug in Someone Elses Code
Maybe best you can do is grab all data values (and
stack, etc) and look at (Send Error Report)
Ex: values change without touching. Usually memory
problem. Could be from supporting system. Retry,
rebuild, reboot, re-install.
No it is not. Be persistent with own code first.
Its not in hardware. (Ok, very, very rarely, but
expect it not to be) Download latest firmware,
drivers
If really is, best bet is to help isolate to speed
them in fixing it.
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Debugging Prevention (1 of 2)
Understand underlying system
Knowing language not enough
Must understand underlying system
At least one level down
Engine for scripters
OS for engine
Maybe two layers down (hardware, assembly)
Add infrastructure, tools to assist
Make general
Alter game variables on fly (speed up)
Visual diagnostics (maybe on avatars)
Log data (events, units, code, time stamps)
Record and playback capability
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Debugging Prevention (2 of 2)
Set compiler on highest level warnings
Compile with multiple compilers
Write own memory manager (for console games,
especially, since tools worse)
Use asserts
Always initialize when declared
Indent code, use comments
Use consistent style, variable names
Avoid identical code harder to fix if bug
Avoid hard-coded (magic numbers) makes brittle
Verify coverage (test all code) when testing
Dont ignore warnings
See if platform specific
Based on Chapter 3.5, Introduction to Game Development
Outline
Teams and Processes
Select Languages
Debugging
Misc (as time allows)
AI
Multiplayer
(done)
(done)
(done)
(next)
Introduction to AI
Opponents that are challenging, or allies
that are helpful
Unit that is credited with acting on own
Human-level intelligence too hard
But under narrow circumstances can do
pretty well (ex: chess and Deep Blue)
Artificial Intelligence (around in CS for
some time)
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
AI for CS different than AI for Games
Must be smart, but purposely flawed
No unintended weaknesses
Must perform in real time (CPU)
Configurable by designers
Amount and type of AI for game can vary
Loose in a fun, challenging way
No golden path to defeat
Must not look dumb
Not hard coded by programmer
RTS needs global strategy, FPS needs modeling of
individual units at footstep level
RTS most demanding: 3 full-time AI programmers
Puzzle, street fighting: 1 part-time AI programmer
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
AI for Games Mini Outline
Introduction
Agents
Finite State Machines
Common AI Techniques
Promising AI Techniques
(done)
(next)
Game Agents (1 of 2)
Most AI focuses around game agent
Loops through: sense-think-act cycle
Sensing
think of agent as NPC, enemy, ally or neutral
Acting is event specific, so talk about sense+think
Gather current world state: barriers, opponents,
objects
Needs limitations : avoid cheating by looking at
game data
Typically, same constraints as player (vision, hearing
range)
Often done simply by distance direction (not computed
as per actual vision)
Model communication (data to other agents) and
reaction times (can build in delay)
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Game Agents (2 of 2)
Thinking
Evaluate information and make decision
As simple or elaborate as required
Two ways:
Precoded expert knowledge, typically hand-
crafted if-then rules + randomness to make
unpredictable
Search algorithm for best (optimal) solution
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Game Agents Thinking (1 of 3)
Expert Knowledge
finite state machines, decision trees, (FSM most
popular, details next)
Appealing since simple, natural, embodies common
sense
Ex: if you see enemy weaker than you, attack.
see enemy stronger, then go get help
Often quite adequate for many AI tasks
Trouble is, often does not scale
Complex situations have many factors
Add more rules, becomes brittle
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
If you
Game Agents Thinking (2 of 3)
Search
Look ahead and see what move to do next
Ex: piece on game board, pathfinding (ch
5.4)
Machine learning
Evaluate past actions, use for future
Techniques show promise, but typically too
slow
Need to learn and remember
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Game Agents Thinking (3 of 3)
Making agents stupid
Many cases, easy to make agents dominate
Ex: bot always gets head-shot
Dumb down by giving human conditions, longer
reaction times, make unnecessarily vulnerable
Agent cheating
Ideally, dont have unfair advantage (such as more
attributes or more knowledge)
But sometimes might to make a challenge
Remember, thats the goal, AI lose in challenging way
Best to let player know
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
AI for Games Mini Outline
Introduction
Agents
Finite State Machines
Common AI Techniques
Promising AI Techniques
(done)
(done)
(next)
Finite State Machines (1 of 2)
S ee E nem y
W ander
A tta c k
N o Enem y
F le e
Abstract model of computation
Formally:
Set of states
A starting state
An input vocabulary
A transition function that maps inputs and the
current state to a next state
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite State Machines (2 of 2)
Most common game AI software pattern
Problems
Natural correspondence between states and
behaviors
Easy to diagram
Easy to program
Easy to debug
Completely general to any problem
Explosion of states
Often created with ad hoc structure
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine: Approaches
Three approaches
Hardcoded (switch statement)
Scripted
Hybrid Approach
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine:
Hardcoded FSM
void RunLogic( int * state ) {
switch( state )
{
case 0: //Wander
Wander();
if( SeeEnemy() )
break;
{ *state = 1; }
case 1: //Attack
Attack();
if( LowOnHealth() ) { *state = 2; }
if( NoEnemy() )
{ *state = 0; }
break;
case 2: //Flee
Flee();
if( NoEnemy() )
break;
{ *state = 0; }
}
}
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine:
Problems with switch FSM
1. Code is ad hoc
Language doesnt enforce structure
2. Transitions result from polling
Inefficient event-driven sometimes
better
3. Cant determine 1st time state is entered
4. Cant be edited or specified by game
designers or players
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine:
Scripted with alternative language
AgentFSM
{
State( STATE_Wander )
OnUpdate
Execute( Wander )
if( SeeEnemy )
SetState(
OnEvent( AttackedByEnemy )
SetState( Attack )
State( STATE_Attack )
OnEnter
Execute( PrepareWeapon )
OnUpdate
Execute( Attack )
if( LowOnHealth ) SetState(
if( NoEnemy )
SetState(
OnExit
Execute( StoreWeapon )
State( STATE_Flee )
OnUpdate
Execute( Flee )
if( NoEnemy )
SetState(
}
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
STATE_Attack )
STATE_Flee )
STATE_Wander )
STATE_Wander )
Finite-State Machine:
Scripting Advantages
1. Structure enforced
2. Events can be handed as well as polling
3. OnEnter and OnExit concept exists
4. Can be authored by game designers
Easier learning curve than straight C/C++
Finite-State Machine:
Scripting Disadvantages
Not trivial to implement
Several months of development
Custom compiler
With good compile-time error feedback
Bytecode interpreter
With good debugging hooks and support
Scripting languages often disliked by users
Can never approach polish and robustness of
commercial compilers/debuggers
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine:
Hybrid Approach
Use a class and C-style macros to approximate a scripting
language
Allows FSM to be written completely in C++ leveraging
existing compiler/debugger
Capture important features/extensions
Cant be edited by designers or players
OnEnter, OnExit
Timers
Handle events
Consistent regulated structure
Ability to log history
Modular, flexible, stack-based
Multiple FSMs, Concurrent FSMs
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
Finite-State Machine:
Extensions
Many possible extensions to basic FSM
OnEnter, OnExit
Timers
Global state, substates
Stack-Based (states or entire FSMs)
Multiple concurrent FSMs
Messaging
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
AI for Games Mini Outline
Introduction
Agents
Finite State Machines
Common AI Techniques
Promising AI Techniques
(done)
(done)
(done)
(next)
Common Game AI Techniques
Whirlwind tour of common techniques
(See book chapters)
Based on Chapter 5.3, Introduction to Game Development
