AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.1 Cells and simple cell transport

All living things are made up of cells. The structures of

different types of cells are related to their functions. To
get into or out of cells, dissolved substances have to
cross the cell membranes.

B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure

B2.1.2 Dissolved substances
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PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
certification June 2014 onwards

B2.1.1 Cells and cell

structure

All living things are made up of cells. The

structures of different types of cells are related
to their functions

Part

Function

Plant or
animal

Nucleus

Contains genetic
material, which
controls the
activities of the
cell

Both

Cytoplasm

Most chemical
processes take
place here,
controlled by
enzymes

Both

Cell
membran
e

Controls the
movement of
substances into
and out of the cell

Both

Mitochond
ria

Most energy is
released by
respiration here

Both

Ribosome
s

Protein synthesis
happens here

Both

Cell wall

Strengthens the
cell

Plant
ONLY

Yeast: Yeast is a single-celled

organism.
The cells have a nucleus,
cytoplasm and a membrane
surrounded by a cell wall.
Bacteria: Single-celled
organism.
A bacterial cell consists of
cytoplasm and a membrane
surrounded by a cell wall.
The genes are not in a
distinct nucleus.

B2.1.1 Cells and cell structure Specialised cells

Cell

Function

Adaptations

Leaf
cell

Absorbs light for

photosynthesis.

Lots of chloroplasts.

Root
hair
cell

Absorbs water and

mineral ions from
the soil.

Large finger like shapes to

increase surface area.

Fertilises an egg

Head contains an enzyme to

help penetrate egg, lots of
mitochondria so egg can swim
to sperm.

Sper
m
cell
Red
bloo
d
cell

Diagram

Cells are specialised for a particular

function. Structure helps them to
carry this function out.

Thin outer membrane so

Carries oxygen to
oxygen diffuses easily, no
Goblet
(mucus)
and
cilia
found
the cells.
nucleus
socells
moreare
room
for in
the lining of the gut and the
tubes into the
oxygen.

lungs. They are specialised to release

and move mucus. Helps food slide down
easily in the gut and helps trap dirt and
bacteria before they enter the lungs. The
cilia cells help move the mucus especially
in the lungs. Cilia cells have lots of

Concentration
B2.1.2 Dissolved
gradient
substances
A difference in
concentration
between two areas
next to each other.
Particles will move
down the
concentration
gradient High to
Low.
The larger the
difference in
concentration the
faster the rate of
diffusion.

Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of a

gas or liquid, resulting in a movement of
particles from a region where they are of a
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Diffusion can occur in:
Air - smells from perfume etc.
Liquids tea from a tea bag, dye
in water etc.
Through membranes small intestines, blood
Particles
cellsLocation
etc.
From
To
move
Small intestine
Digested
food
Small Blood in
products intestin capillary
e.g.
e
of villus
glucose
Lungs
Oxygen

Blood
circulati
Alveolar
ng
air
around
space
the
lungs

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.2 Tissues, organs and organ systems

The cells of multicellular organisms may differentiate and

become adapted for specific functions. Tissues are
aggregations of similar cells; organs are aggregations of
tissues performing specific physiological functions. Organs
are organised into organ systems, which work together to
form organisms.

B2.2.1 Animal organs

B2.2.2 Plant organs
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PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
certification June 2014 onwards

B2.2.1 Animal
organs
Organisation of a
multicellular
organism
cells tissues
organs organ
systems
A TISSUE
is a group
of specialised cells
working together to
carry out a
particular function.
Tissue
Function
Muscul
ar
tissue

Contracts,
bringing
about
movement

Glandu
lar
tissue

Produces
substances
such as
enzymes
and
hormones

Epithel
ial

Covers
some parts

Tissues in the
stomach

The stomach is an
organ that contains:
muscular tissue, to
churn the contents
glandular tissue, to
produce digestive
juices
epithelial tissue, to
cover the outside and
inside of the
The digestive the
system
stomach.
An organ system which humans
and other
mammals have so they can exchange substances
with the environment.
Part(s)
Function
Pancreas/
salivary
glands

Produce
digestive
juices

Stomach

Digests
food

Liver

Producesbi
le

Small
intestine

Digest and
absorb
soluble
food

B2.2.2 Plant organs

Plants organs
Stem support for the
leaves and flowers.
Water and glucose
transported too.
Leavesmake the
food for the plant
where photosynthesis
happens.
Rootsanchor the
plant in the soil, take
up water and mineral
ions.
Flowersare
reproductive organs to
attract insects.

Tissue
Epidermal

Definition
Covers the plant, contains stomata.

Mesophyl

Where photosynthesis takes place.

Contains palisade cells and spongy
layer.

Xylem

Carries water and mineral ions from

roots.

Phloem

Carries glucose from the mesophyll to

the rest of the plant.

Stomata

Pores on the underside of the leaf

that allow gases to diffuse in and out.

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.3 Photosynthesis

Green plants and algae use light energy to make their own
food. They obtain the raw materials they need to make this
food from the air and the soil. The conditions plants are
grown in can be changed to promote growth.

B2.3.1 Photosynthesis
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B2.3.1
Photosynthesis

Plants convert glucose

into starch and store it.
Cover part of a leaf in
black paper then test it
for starch using iodine.

Plant cells use some of

the glucose produced
during photosynthesis
for respiration. Also use
the glucose to make:
oil for storage,
cellulose for cell walls,
proteins (also need

Photosynthesis Photo = light, Synthesis =

making of (glucose) Photosynthesis = making
glucose using light
Factors that can limit the rate of
photosynthesis
Light intensity not enough light no
photosynthesis
CO2 concentration - not enough light no
photosynthesis
Water availability plants wilt, not enough
no photosynthesis
Temperature too low temp enzymes dont
work well

Greenhouses
Farmers can use greenhouses to increase
plant growth.
Artificial light - allows photosynthesis to
continue beyond daylight hours.
Heating - allows photosynthesis to continue at
an increased rate heater can also give off extra
carbon dioxidereleased into the greenhouse

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.4 Organisms and their environment

Living organisms form communities, and we need to

understand the relationships within and between these
communities. These relationships are affected by external
influences.

B2.4.1 Distribution of organisms

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PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
certification June 2014 onwards

B2.4.1 Distribution of
organisms
Quadrats: These are
square frames, used to
mark off specific areas of
ground 0.5m X 0.5m

The distribution of living organisms in a

particular habitat may be affected by
physical factors (abiotic) e.g.
Temperature, amount of light, availability of
water, availability of nutrients, availability of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. They can also
beTransect:Measure
affected by livingout
factors
(biotic)
Line
an area,
good for
availability
of
prey,
disease,
predators.
investigating changing habitats, place quadrat
at regular intervals, record organisms,
repeat on different line to collect average

Quadrats:
Sample an area
Random method generate
numbers using a calculator. Take
several samples
Count number of organisms in
each quadrat or count the %
cover.
Calculate an average from the
Reproducible
samples
Another group are
Multiply the average by the
able to carry out
area of the field
the investigation
Improve results by taking more
and collect similar
samples
results

Valid
Data collection
that is suitable to
answer the
investigation
hypothesis

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.5 Proteins their functions and uses

Proteins have many functions, both inside and outside the

cells of living organisms. Proteins, as enzymes, are now
used widely in the home and in industry.

B2.5.1 Proteins
B2.5.2 Enzymes
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PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
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Enzymes made of proteins they arebiological

B2.5.1 Proteins catalysts- substances that increase the rate of
Enzymes
chemical reactions without being used up.
Protein molecules are
made up of long chains
of amino acids. These
long chains are folded to
produce a specific
shape that enables
other molecules to fit
into the protein.
Proteins: structural
components of tissues
e.g. muscles, hormones,
To begin with heat will help increase
Uses of
enzymes:
antibodies,
enzymes.
collisions between the enzymes and
Biological detergents:
substrates BUT too hot and it will
Contain protease and lipase,
denature (remember denature NOT die)
break down protein and fats
in stains. Baby food:
Protease, Pre digest proteins.
Diet products: isomerase is
used to convert glucose
syrup into fructose syrup,
which is much sweeter, can
Enzymes
also easily
affected by pH changes. Need specific conditions
be used inare
smaller
quantities
toslimming
keep them
working at their best. OPTIMUM CONDITIONS!
in
foods

DENATURE
D

B2.5.2 Enzymes
Digestive
Digestionenzymes
and absorption

occurs in the gut this goes

from the mouth to the
anus.
Enzyme

Reaction
catalysed

Amylase

Starch
sugars

Protease

Enzymes for respiration,

photosynthesis and protein synthesis
work inside cells. Other enzymes
produced by specialised cells and
released from them e.g. digestive
Where
enzymes.
Catalyse means to speed up.
produced

Salivary glands,
pancreas, small
intestine

Proteins
Stomach,
amino acids pancreas, small
intestine

Lipase

Lipids fatty Pancreas, small

acids +
intestine
Digestion and
pH:
glycerol

The stomach
releases acid. The enzymes made in the
stomach work best in acidic conditions.
The enzymes made in the pancreas
and small intestine work best in
alkaline conditions. The liver produces
bile which is released into the small

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.6 Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Respiration in cells can take place aerobically or

anaerobically. The energy released is used in a variety of
ways. The human body needs to react to the increased
demand for energy during exercise.

B2.6.1 Aerobic respiration

B2.6.2 Anaerobic respiration
Higher tier content: HT - As the breakdown of glucose is
incomplete, much less energy is released than during
aerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration results in an
oxygen debt that has to be repaid in order to oxidise lactic
acid to carbon dioxide and water.

PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
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RESPIRATION RELEASES ENERGY IT DOES NOT

B2.6.1 Aerobic
PRODUCE ENERGY.
respiration
Aerobic Respiration The process of releasing energy from food in
cells. Aerobic respiration - uses oxygen. All chemical reactions inside
cells are controlled by enzymes.

Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)

glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Glucose reacts with oxygen,
carbon dioxide and water as
(+producing
energy)

waste products. To release energy. This takes place continuously in

animals and plants.
Released energy is used
Mitochondria: Tiny organelles
found in most plant and animal cells.
for:
Where the respiration reactions
To build up larger molecules
happen. More active cells have
using smaller ones. In animals,
more
to enable muscles to contract.
mitochondria
In mammals and birds, to
e.g. muscle cells,
maintain a steady body
sperm cells.
temperature in colder
surroundings. In plants, to build
up
sugars,
nitrates
and other
During
exercise
changes
take place: the heart rate and breathing
nutrients into
amino
increases.
Blood
flowacids
increases so more glucose and O2 to cells.
whichstore
are then
builtas
upglycogen
into
Muscles
glucose
the glycogen gets converted back
proteins. to glucose during exercise.

RESPIRATION RELEASES ENERGY IT DOES NOT

B2.6.2 Anaerobic
PRODUCE ENERGY.
respiration
During exercise, too little oxygen is reaching the muscles they use
anaerobic respiration to RELEASE energy. It is the incomplete
breakdown of glucose and produces lactic acid.

Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen)

glucose lactic acid (+ small amount of
Lactic Acid
Higherenergy)
Tier OXYGEN dept:

If muscles have long Anaerobic respiration results in an oxygen debt

periods of exercise that has to be repaid in order to change lactic acid
they get fatigued- to carbon dioxide and water. The extra oxygen
they stop contracting needed
is called the oxygen debt.
-The heart
properly. One cause
continues to pump
is the build-up of
faster.
lactic acid in the
-The breathing
muscles. Lactic acid rate remains high.
is poisonous. We
-This delivers the
can only tolerate
extra oxygen to
small amounts in
the muscles.
our body. Blood
-This pays back the
flowing
through
the
In yeast
anaerobic
respiration
oxygen
debt. produces ethanol and carbon
muscles(which
removes
dioxide
is why we used it to make beer and bread) we call
the lactic acid.

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.7 Cell division and inheritance

Characteristics are passed on from one generation to the

next in both plants and animals. Simple genetic diagrams
can be used to show this. There are ethical considerations
in treating genetic disorders.
Higher Tier - construct genetic diagrams of monohybrid
crosses and predict the outcomes of monohybrid crosses
and be able to use the terms homozygous, heterozygous,
phenotype and genotype. Foundation Tier - should be able to
interpret genetic diagrams of monohybrid inheritance and sex
inheritance.

B2.7.1 Cell division

Higher Tier - When a cell divides to form gametes:
copies of the genetic information are made
then the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each
with a single set of chromosomes.

B2.7.2 Genetic variation

Higher
- EachPowerPoint
gene codes
for 2aB2particular
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GCSE Additionalcombination
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B2.7.1 Cell
division

Genetic information is in the nucleus

of cells
Inside the nucleus are chromosomes
made up of DNA BODY CELLS have two
sets of chromosomes, SEX CELLS
(gametes) have one set of
chromosomes in humans body cells
MITOSIS cell division for
46 chromosomes (23 pairs), sex cells
growth and repair of cells
(sperm/egg) 23 single chromosomes.
Higher
TierCELLS
MEIOSIS
cell division
to
(produces
clones).
BODY
DIVIDE
BY
MITOSIS
1.
Parent
cell
1
produce sex cells
for my
reproduction.
(makes
toes)
2.
2
3
4

5
6

Chromosomes
make
identical
copies of
themselves
3. Line up
along the
centre
4. They move
apart
5. Two
daughter
cells start to
form.

SEX
CELLS DIVIDE
Creates
4 daughter
cells, BY MEIOSIS
genetically unique , makes
gametes (sperm, egg), 23
chromosomes only

Fertilisation: where
gametes join. New
cell divides by

B2.7.1 Cell division

STEM CELLS: Cells that can become
STEM cells
anything, they are undifferentiated
Embryonic stem cells can be
made into any type of cell (curing
all sorts of disease) but come
from aborted embryos (which can
be a problem) We also don't know
the long term effect of their use
Stem cells canyet.
be used in new
treatments for Parkinson's
disease and paralysis. They can Adult bone marrow stem cells can
be harvested from inside
also be used but cant be made into as
embryos, umbilical cords and
many different things but you can give
bone marrow.
permission to have them taken the
operation can be painful!
Plant Cells: Most plant cells stay
unspecialised. They can differentiate
all through their lives. Unspecialised
cells are made at the stems and roots,
where mitosis takes place almost
constantly. This makes it very easy to
clone plants.
There are social and ethical
issues concerning the use of

B2.7.2 Genetic
variation

Alleles -different forms

of the same gene
represented by two
letters. For example, eye
colour

Sexual reproduction leads to variation:

Meiosis ensures that all gametes contain the
same genes, but have a different selection of
alleles. Also, it is random which sperm
fertilises which egg. All individuals (except
for identical twins)
produced sexually are
genetically different
DNA fingerprinting
can identify
individuals.

Determining sex (gender):

RecessiveHuman body cells have 23
characteristic only
pairs of chromosomes in
expressed when two of
the nucleus. One of these
the same alleles are
pairs controls the
present e.g. bb.
inheritance
of gender:
HIGHER
TIER:
Dominantcharacteristic
HIGHER TIER: You must be able
XX=female
XY=male
Homozygous- two of the same allele
one or crosses,
toexpressed
draw forwhen
monohybrid
e.g. bb or BB Heterozygous- two
both alleles
are present
these
and identify
genotype and
different alleles e.g. Bb Genotype- the
e.g.
BB
or
Bb
phenotype of offspring. You must genes present e.g. Bb or bb or BB
work out % of offspring with each Phenotype- the genes that are expressed
characteristic. T tall t short in the physical characteristics. e.g.,
brown eyes, blue eye, blond hair, brown
What % of the offspring
hair. Each gene codes for a particular
will be short?

B2.7.3 Genetic
disorders
Cystic fibrosis (a
disorder of cell
membranes) inherited
from both parents.
The parents can be
carriers of CF but not
have CF. Caused by a
recessive allele so can
passed on by parents
who dont have it.
Causes thick, sticky
mucus to accumulate
in the lungs and the
digestive system. This
causes: Lung
infections, problems
with breathing,
problems with digestion
and absorption.

Some genetic disorders are inherited e.g.

polydactyly, cystic fibrosis. Embryos can be
screened for the different types of disorders.
Polydactyly: Extra fingers or toes - caused by

a dominant allele can be passed on by only

one parent who has the disorder.

A genetic
pedigree
or Family
trees can
also be
used to
trace how a
disease is
inherited.
On the right
is an

B2.7.2 Genetic variation

Gregor Mendel
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
studied the inheritance of
different characteristics in pea
plants.
Found that when he bred redflowered plants with whiteflowered plants, all the
offspring had red flowers.
If he bred these plants with each
other, most had red flowers,
but some had white.
This was because the allele for
red flowers is dominant, and
the allele for white flowers is
recessive.

Called the father of modern

genetics. No one took his ideas
seriously until after his death.

FIRST CROSS:
All the offspring have red flowers,
even though they carry the recessive
allele for white flowers

SECOND CROSS:
Three-quarters of the offspring have
red flowers and a quarter have white

AQA Knowledge PowerPoint

Unit 2 Biology 2 B2.8 Speciation

Changes in the environment of plants and animals may

cause them to die out. The fossil record shows that new
organisms arise, flourish, and after a time become extinct.
The record also shows changes that lead to the formation
of new species.

B2.8.1 Old and new species

Higher Tier - genetic variation each population
has a wide range of alleles that control their
characteristics
natural selection in each population, the
alleles that control the characteristics which help
the organism to survive are selected
speciation the populations become so
PiXL AQA Knowledge PowerPoint Unit 2 Biology 2 B2 GCSE Additional Science for
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certification June 2014 onwards

B2.8.1 Old and new

species - OLD
Fossils can be used
to gather evidence
for evolution. This is
called a fossil record.

FOSSILS SHOW EVIDENCE OF EARLY LIFE

FORMS.
Can be formed by
Mineralisation of the hard parts (shells, bones,
teeth etc)
Some soft parts do not decay/rot, because they
are buried.
Traces of the animals (footprints, burrows,
faeces, etc)

Extinction
Permanent loss of all members
of a species.
Caused by a change:
New predators
New diseases
Loss of habitat
More successful competitor
Cant find evidence of all earlier life forms: Many were soft-bodied,
so left few traces behind as many destroyed by geological activity.

B2.8.1 Old and new

species - NEW

New species arise as because of: Isolation

two populations of a species become
separated e.g geographically.

Species: A group of similar organisms

that can breed to produce fertile
offspring
Higher Tier:
Genetic variation each population has a
wide range of alleles that control their
characteristics.
Natural Selection
Variation populations of organisms have
variations.
Over-production produce more young than
will survive to adulthood.
Struggle for existence competition for
survival between the organisms
Survival those with advantageous
characteristics are more likely to survive
Advantageous characteristics inherited
better adapted organisms are more likely to
Reproduce successfully passing on the
advantageous characteristics to their
offspring in their genes.
Endemic:change
A species
that has
evolved
to live
Gradual
over
a period
of time
thein
only one place in the world.

Higher Tier: Speciation

Takes place when an
isolated population becomes
so different from the original
population that a new
species is produced.