Introduction

In recent years, a no. of developments have taken place in the power systems field.
The basic function of a transmission system is to transfer electrical power from
one area to another area or from one network to another network.
The present trend is to transmit larger amounts of power at very high voltages.
The voltages above 300KV are termed as Extra High Voltage, (EHV).
The voltage exceed 750 KV are termed as Ultra High Voltages (UHV).
Now-a-days larger amount of power are transmitted over long distances from
generating stations to load centers.
Alternating current power is used as a power source as well as for
transmission purposes because it can be conveniently generated and also converted
from one voltage to another voltage.
Why we go for EHV/UHV range for transmission purposes is
i) Reduction of electrical losses and hence transmission efficiency increases
ii) It improves voltage regulation because of reduction of line drop.
iii) Because of high voltage, the size of conductor is less because size of the conductor
is inversely proportional to the square of transmission voltage.
iv) The installation cost of the transmission line per km decreases by increasing in
voltage level.
v) It is possible to interconnecting of power systems.
vi) Less right-of-way is required.
Vii) Load carrying capacitor is expressed in terms of Surge Impedance Loading(SIL) for
transmission line, The surge impedance is given by Zc =
where L is the series
inductance and C is the shunt capacitance per unit length of the time. L / C

2
Surge Impedance loading (SIL) for a transmission line is given by SIL = 3V / Z c
Where V is line to neutral voltage.
From the above equation SIL varies as the square of the operating voltage. That
means for increase in transmission voltage level SIL increases, thus power
transfer capability of the line increases.
In view of above advantages many technical problems involved in EHV
transmission. The major problems are
i)Corona loss and Radio interference
The EHV transmission corona loss and radio interference is
high because line voltage level being a governing factor in the corona loss.
Corona loss can be minimized either by increasing the
conductor size or by increasing the spacing between the conductors. But the
spacing between the conductors cannot be increased to a large extent because
if the spacing is increased, the cost of the supports generally becomes very
high. Large diameter conductors have been used to bring down the corona loss
and radio interference.
But for increasing the diameter hollow and ACSR conductor
are used. But the cost of manufacturing for such conductor is high and their
handling is both difficult and expensive. Therefore bundled conductor after an
economical solution for minimizing corona loss and radio interference for EHV.

ii) EHV line needs heavy supporting structures because of use of bundled
conductors.
iii) Erection is difficulty.
iv) It requires high level of insulation
In view of these problems with ac, the dc transmission has staged a come
back in the form of high voltage dc transmission to supplement the AC transmission
system.
The first DC link was setup in 1954 between Swedish mainland and the
island of Gotland. This was a monopolar, 100KV, 20 MW, cable system making use
of sea return.
In 1961 an underwater dc link was setup between England and France.
This was bipolar + 100KV, 160 MW cable system over a distance of about 65 KM.
HVDC transmission has also been introduced in India. +500 KV has been
selected as the voltages for HVDC transmission.
A +500 KV, 1500 MW, 810 KM bipolar HVDC line has already been set up
between Rihand and Delhi.
At present the world has over 50 HVDC schemes in operation for a total
capacity of more than 50,000 MW and the capacity is increased by about 2000MW
every year.

Step-up
transformer
Generating
Station

Step-down
transformer

HVDC
Transmission
Rectifier
Station (R)

filter

filter

Inverter
Station (I)
Receiving
end

Block diagram or single line diagram of HVDC is shown in fig.

Generating station will generate the three phase, 50 Hz AC supply, that three
phase AC supply is given to the step up transformer.
This transforms the low ac voltage to a higher ac voltage and then given to the
rectifier station(R).
The rectifier converts ac voltage to a dc voltage by the thyristor valve for
transmission.
By using filter we can reduce the harmonics and ripple content and transmit
the power through transmission lines.
In the receiving end inverting station converts DC voltage to AC by the
thyristor valves and then stepped down by the stepdown transformer.
The power received at the inverter station or receiving side Pr is less than the
power generating station Ps ie., (Ps-Pr) represents the power losses due to
transmission and conversion stations. The DC power flow control is possible by varying
the firing angles of the both controllers ie., rectifier station and inverting station. In
rectifier station, the firing angle is varying from 0 to 90 degrees while inverting station is
varies from 90 to 180 degrees. As the DC output voltage is function of cosine of the
delay angle. Hence the converting stations output voltage is negative for firing angle is
greater than 90 degrees. This makes the converter to operate as a line commutated
inverter. In general HVDC conversions are three phase six pulse converters are used in
both rectifier station and inversion station. In this bidirectional power flow is possible by
changing the firing angles of the converters.

Advantages of HVDC transmission:

HVDC Transmission have many advantages over ac transmission. Some of
technical and economical advantages are given below:
i)For transmitting bulk power over long distance say above 500km these systems are
economical.
ii)During bad weather conditions, the corona loss and radio interference are lower for a
HVDC line as compared to that in an ac line of the same voltage and same conductor
size.
iii)Compare to ac transmission, HVDC transmission is cheaper in cost because ac
system required three conductors to carry power where as HVDC transmission lines
require two conductors.
iv)Right-of-way for a DC line is about 20-40 percent lesser than that for an ac line of the
same power transmission capability.
v)Unlike ac transmission, HVDC transmission system does not requires any intermediate
substations for compensation.
vi)The transmission losses in a HVDC transmission are lower than the ac transmission of
the same power transmission capability.
vii)The towers of HVDC lines are simpler, cheaper than ac lines.
viii) No skin effect in HVDC lines, so uniform distribution of current over the section of the
conductor. There is a skin effect in ac lines.
ix)Voltage regulation is better in case of DC transmission.
x)Power flow control is easy in HVDC link.
xi)High reliability.

Disadvantages of HVDC transmission:

HVDC transmission have few limitations as
i)Initial cost is high because it requires additional requirement of converters (rectifier and
inverter stations), filters, reactive power compensators.
ii)Overhead capacity is low as compared to ac transmission.
iii)HVDC converter need cooling systems.
iv)HVDC converters produce harmonics both ac and dc sides which may cause
interference with the audio frequency communication lines.
v)Reducing ripples from the dc output, filters requirement is more.
vi)Maintenance of insulators is more.
vii)HVDC circuit breakers is expensive.
viii) Voltage transformation is not possible in DC side and hence it is to be provided on
the ac side only.

HVDC link
Rectifier

Inverter

AC
Supply

AC Grid
I

Converter Station
Converter station consists the following equipments and as shown in fig
i.Converter unit
ii.Converter transformer
iii.Filters
iv.Reactive power
v.Smoothing reactor
vi.Switch gear
i.Converter Station:
ii.Converter transformer:
The converter transformer can have the different configurations, they are
a)Three phase, two winding transformer
b)Single phase, three winding transformer
c)Single phase, two winding transformer
The above of (a) and (b) type of transformer can be installed at the
valve side & winding are stator and delta with neutral point ungrounded.
The configuration (c) can be used on the AC side and the transformer
are connected in parallel with neutral grounded.
Note:
The leakage reactance of the transformer is chosen to limit the short circuit
currents through any value.
The converter transformers are designed to withstand DC voltage
stresses and increased eddy current losses due to harmonic currents.

iii.Filters:
Three types of filters can be used in the converter station, they are
a)AC filter
b)DC filters
c)High frequency (RF/PLC) filters
iv. Reactive power source:
Converter stations require reactive power supply that is dependent on the
active
Power loading [about to 60% of the active power]. Fortunately, part of this reactive
power requirement is provided by AC filters. For addition of above the shunt
(switched) capacitor, synchronous condensers and static Var systems are used. On
the dependency of speed of control is desired.
v. Smoothing reactor:
Generally a sufficiently large series reactor is used on DC side to get the
smooth DC current and also for the protection. The reactor is designed as a linear
reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral side or at intermediate location.
vi. DC switch gear:
The DC switch gear is usually a modified AC equipment used to interrupt
small DC currents [employed as disconnecting switches]. DC breakers or metallic
return transfer breakers (MRTB) are used, if required for interruption on rated load
currents.
In addition to the equipment described above, AC switch gear and
associated equipment for protection and measurement are also part of the converter
station.

Applications of HVDC Transmission:

On the basis of applications, HVDC transmission systems are scheduled as
an alternative to extra high voltage AC transmission system for the following
reasons:
i)Long distance high power transmission by overhead lines
ii)Under water transmission
iii)Transmission by underground cable
iv)Asynchronous interconnection of AC systems operating at different frequencies.
v)HVDC back to back system
vi)Multi terminal HVDC system for interconnecting them or more three phase AC
system.
i)Long distance high power transmission:
Compare to ac transmission HVDC transmission is cheaper
because 3-phase ac requires three conductors. For long distance high power
transmission , HVDC systems are preferred due to their fast and easy control of
power flow from sending end to the load centre. And also HVDC is economic
advantages over ac system.
HVDC line losses are low because it require two conductors. EHVAC line requires intermediate substation is required over a distance of 300 km oor
compensation whereas for HVDC lines does not required intermediate substation.
The per km cost of HVDC line is lesser than that of an AC line.

Under water transmission and under ground transmission:

For long distances HVDC under water transmission is only the solution
because ac transmission under water cable length is limited upto 25-40km only due to
problem of charging current. The submarine cables are necessary to transfer power
across oceans, lakes etc.
In congested areas the power transmission is done through under ground
cable. If distance is exceeding 45km, dc transmission is only feasible solution. In HVDC
transmission extra cost of the converters is compensated by saving in cable costs at
distants from 45km to 100 km.
iii) Interconnection of the systems:
Due to its technical superiority HVDC interconnection is superior to AC
interconnection.
For interconnection between two ac systems. HVDC links are preferred.
HVDC links form an asynchronous tie i.e., the two ac systems interconnected by HVDC
line link not in synchronous with each other, HVDC interconnection power flow can
controlled fast and easy, the frequency distribution are not transferred.
iv) HVDC back to back system:
Back to Back system provides interconnection between two adjacent ac
systems through converter station without any transmission line. This type of schemes
is employed for different frequencies in AC systems. HVDC inverter and rectifier are
installed in the same station. The back to back coupling stations are installed at where
two networks meet geographically.

v) Multi-terminal HVDC interconnection:

More than two AC network can be interconnected asynchronously by
means of a multi-terminal HVDC system. This is new HVDC interconnection power
flow from each connecter ac network can be controlled suitably. By means of this
large power can be transferred. It requires large dc circuit breakage compared to
other connections. The stability of multi-terminal HVDC interconnection is high.
Converter Station Equipment:
The HVDC transmission system, ac is converted into DC by means of
thyristor valves. This process is called rectification. This DC is transmitted to the
receiving end of the HVDC transmission line, dc is converted back to ac by means of
thyristor valves. This conversion is called the inversion.
Fig shows the HVDC transmission line with the following main parts: Two
12 pulse converter unit pre-pole, thyristor valves, converter transformer, smoothing
reactors, harmonic filtering equipment, control equipment and reactive power
compensation equipment. Varies components of a HVDC link are discussed below.
i)Thyristor valve:
Before 1970s HVDC converters use mercury arc valves for conversion and
inversion purposes. After 1970s thyristor valves are used all HVDC schemes
because of a better operating life and higher performance than those of a mercury
arc valve. The use of thyristors has resulted in a considerable simplification in the
design of conversion station. The ratings of thyristors have increased remarkably
during the last one decade. The available current ratings of the thyristors are
sufficient to meet the requirement of line current of transmission.

However, the voltage rating of individual thyristor is small as compared to line voltage.
Thus a large number of thyristors are connected in series to obtain required voltage
rating.
The valves are of indoor design, air insulated and air (or) water-cooled.
Generally the thyristor always fail to an internal short circuit, a thyristor valve is always
equipped with a number of extra thyristors in series so that even if any one of thyristor
fails, the operation of the valve is not effected. As thyristor produce heat of 30-40 W/cm2
hence effective cooling system is required in practical installation. Water cooling in
recommended for high power applications. Thyristors are protected from dv/dt, dI/dt,
forward over voltage firing, over temperature and forward recovery protection.
iii) Converter transformers:
The modern HVDC scheme six pulse or twelve pulse converters are used.
Generally 12-pulse converters are more preferred as it contains high ripple frequency.
There are two 3 phase transformers connecting each 12-pulse converter to the ac bus
bars. One of the 3 phase transformer is star/star (Y-Y) connected and the other is
star/delta (Y-) connected so as to give a phase shift of 30 degrees between the two 6pulse bridge of the converter. Converter transformer serves the following fuctions:
Short circuit currents are controlled by suitable impedance value of these transformer.
Converter transformer reactance will suppress the harmonics.
Reactive power is supplied to the converter through tap changing.

A converter transformer has a some what different design than that of normal power
transformer because in the converter transformer the currents have high harmonic
content so that special care has to be taken with regard to eddy current losses. To
reduce the reactive power demand in steady state operation on load tap changing is
normally used. Proper quality control of tap change is needed in HVDC systems
because the number of tap changer operation are high in HVDC system.
iii) Converter Unit:
The 12-pulse converter is formed by connecting two 3-ph 6-pulse
converters connected in series. A 12-pulse converter unit is shown in fig. The use of
four valve units per phase of a 12-phase converter configuration is common. A typical
quadrivalve comprises from valves placed vertically one above the other to form on
limb of the converter. Such an arrangement provides the most compact and
economical layout of the valves and the valve housing. Three quadrivalve consists of
12-pulse converter. Valve firing signals are generated in the converter control at
ground potential and are transmitted to each thyristor in the valves through a fiber
optic light guide system. Snubber circuit, gapless surge arresters are used to
protection of valves.
iv) Smoothing reactors:
A smoothing reactor is connected in series with each pole of a converter
station. The valve of inductance is between the 0.4H to 1.0H. The DC reactor is
usually of air core and oil-cooled type and has the non linear magnetic
characteristics. By increasing the value of inductance the current waveform on the
DC side improves but control response slows down and the resonance frequency
reduces making the stabilization of current control more difficult.

The smoothing reactor serves the following function mainly:

It prevents consonant commutation failures in the inverter
It decreases the incidence of commutation failures in the inverter during voltage drop
in AC voltage
It reduces the harmonic voltages and currents in the dc line.
Any short circuit occurs in the line it limits the current in the rectifier.
v) Control Equipment:
The firing angle control is very important in HVDC systems. This control is
done by using optic fibre based hardware circuitry. In AC transmission power flow
control is difficult where as in HVDC system power flow control is simple by vary the
firing angle of the converters. Practical HVDC system the valve of the two converter
stations are controlled in such a way that the rectifier end controls the current while the
inverter end controls the voltage. These controls allow the link to maintain constant
power.
vi) Reactive Power compensation equipment:
Only real power is transferred through DC line, no reactive power is
transmitted. However, both converters rectifier and inverter draw reactive power from
the ac systems. So reactive power must balance to maintain at the two ends to ensure
that ac voltage is held within specified limits. This require reactive power compensation
equipments in the HVDC stations. Compensation equipment consists of AC filter
capacitors which also reduces AC harmonics, shunt capacitors, synchronous
condensors or static VAR systems. Sometimes combination of these equipment is also
is used. Rectifier reactive power varies as the sin, whereas the reactive power
requirement of the inverter varies as the sin (where is the inversion angle of the

Both rectifier and inverter, the reactive power is also proportional to 50 to 60

percent of the active power.
vii) Harmonic filtering equipment:
The 3-ph bridge converter converts pure AC supply to pure variable DC
supply. But in practice the operation of converter generates harmonic currents
and harmonic voltage on AC and DC side. These harmonics flows through ac and
dc lines and produces harmful effects such as overheating of capacitors and
generators, over voltages at points in the networks, interference with protective
gear-interference with nearby communication systems, radio interference and
television interference.
An n pulse converter produce the harmonics of the order of nh+1 on ac
side and nh on dc side, where h is the order of harmonics, n is the 6 pulse or 12
pulse converters. In 12 pulse converter the order of main harmonics are 12th and
24th on the dc side and 11th , 13th , 23rd and 25th on the AC side. We know that the
amplitude of harmonics decrease by increasing order of harmonics. Therefore, it
is required to use filters on both ac and dc side to reduce the harmonics.
AC filter-design:
The function of AC filter is to eliminate all the detrimental effects caused
by waveform distortion and telephone interference. In the design of AC filter we
have to consider mainly two basic concepts, one is size of the filter and the other
is quality of filter.

The size of the filter represents the reactive power that the filter supplies at
fundamental frequency and the quality of the filter represents the sharpness of
tuning which increases with the ratio of its resonance inductance or capacitance to
its resistance for resonant filters.
In case of high pass filter, the sharpness increases is inversely propotional
to that ratio. AC filters used in HVDC systems are tuned filter which is sharply tuned
to a harmmic frequency, damped filter which, is shunt connected, offer low
impedance over a broad band of frequencies. Now in 12-pulse valve group
operation only two damped filters are used. Damped filters are simple to design and
have lower rate of the resonant over voltage and currents are compared to tunned
filter.
DC filter:
DC side of HVDC converter converter the voltage harmmics generation
harmmic currents, whose amplitude depend on the belong inversion angle and the
impedance of the DC circuit itself. The harmmics on the DC side must also be
limited before entering the line. The dc reactor or smoothing reactor is sufficient to
limit the magnitude of the harmmics on the dc side.

Comparision of AC and DC Transmission:

The relative merits of the AC and DC transmission based on the following
factors:
1.Economics of transmission
2.Technical performance
3.Reliability
While design the transmission we have to consider above factors.
In most practical cases the technical limitations are not reached and economic
limitations decides the final choice of design.
1.Economics of Power Transmission:
Total cost of a transmission line is the sum of the investment and
operational costs. The investment includes cost of
i) Right of way(ROW)
ii) Transmission towers
iii) Conductors
iv) insulators
v) Terminal equipments
The operational costs include mainly the cost of losses and
maintenance.
A DC line can carry more power with only two conductors and an
AC line with the conductors of the same size. This shows that for a given power level
HVDC transmission requires less ROW, simple transmission towers, less conductormaterial, less insulation cost compare to AC line. HVDC line in less transmission
power losses because DC lines only two conductors and also no skin effect with DC.

DC line terminal equipments cost in high because it requires two converters,

one is rectifier station and other is inverter station, filter requirements also more in case
of DC line.
Fig shows the variation of cost of transmission with respect to the line length for
AC and DC transmission. DC tends to be more economical than AC for distance more
than break even distance. The distance varies from 500km-800km in over head lines.
The converter used with DC line produce harmonics of voltage and current, on
both ac and dc sides. These harmonics especially in the extensive ac network may
cause interference with audio-frequency telephone lines. Filters are required on the ac
side of each converter for reducing the magnitude of harmonics in the ac networks.
These increase the cost of the converter stations. Fortunately the capacitor used in the
filters also supply part of the reactive power required by the converters. The cost of the
filter and of additional reactive power supply should be regarded as a part of the cost of
a dc line terminal.
2.Technical Performance:
Compare to AC transmission HVDC transmission has positive advantages are
full control over transmitted power, improves transient and dynamic stability and also it
limits the fault currents in DC lines. In addition to above advantages DC line over comes
some of the problems of AC transmission. These are
i) Voltage limit
ii) Current limit
iii) Reactive power and voltage regulation
iv) Line compensation
v) Stability

i) Voltage limits:
The normal working voltage and the over voltages caused by switching surges and
lightning must be limited to values that will not cause puncture on flashover of
the insulation. AC line voltage control is complex by the line charging and
inductive voltage drops. On EHV overhead lines switching surges have become
the more serious transient overvoltages, and on ac lines attempts and made to
limit them to peak value of two or three times normal crest voltage. Whereas in
case of DC transmission switching surges are lower than this, say 1.7 times
normal voltages.
Due to corona maximum working voltage or the minimum conductor size is
limited on over head lines. In cables, normal working voltage is usually the
limiting factor. Insulation will withstand a DC voltage higher than the crest of the
alternates voltage( 2 times R.M.S. voltage)
ii) Current limit:
The temperature of a conductor must be limits in order to avoid damage to the
conductor itself permanently increased sag on in the case of a cable to the
installation in contact with it. Hence current in the conductor must be limited in
accordance with its duration and the ambient temperature.
iii) Reactive Power and Voltage Regulation:
On long distance ac over head lines and shorter distance ac cables, the
generation and absorption of reactive power by the line itself a serious problem.

The lines produce reactive power/unit length

The line consumes reactive power/unit length
Where V is operating voltage
I is current
C and L are shunt capacitance and series induction/unit length
Reactive power produced by the line is equal to consumer by it
In this case the load impedance has the value Zn known as the natural
impedance or surge impedance of the line. The single conductor overhead line surge
impedance is about 400 ohm and bundled conductors about 300 ohms, and cable is
only about 40 ohms.
The power carried by the line so loaded is
and is called the surge impedance loading(SIL). It depends only on voltage
and independent of distance.
On a line carrying its natural load, the magnitude of voltage is the same
everywhere as shown in curve 1 in fig. Load demand is not constant always it varies
with time. In over head line most economical load is greater than the natural load,
P>Pn this is shown in curve 3 in fig. In this case net reactive power is consumed by
the line and must be supplied from either of the end or both ends. If same voltage is
maintains at both sending end and receiving end side equal amount of reactive power
supplied from both ends.
If load on the line is less than the natural load, (P>Pn) net reactive power is
produced by the line and is delivered to one or both ends with equal voltage at both
ends, equal amounts of reactive power are delivered to both ends shown in curve 2.
Thus the voltage control in AC lines is complicated by the line charging and

iv) Line compensation:

From the above discussion AC lines require shunt end series compensation in
long distant transmission mainly to overcome the problem of line charging and stability
limitations. For this purpose series capacitor and shunt inductor are used. By using static
VAR systems or static VAR compensators increasing power transfer and voltage control
is also possible.
v) Stability:
In two machine lossless system power transmitted from one machine to other is
given by
Where sending end voltage
Receiving end voltage
Power angle between and phasors
Series reactance
Thus power flow in AC lines is controlled by controlling the abgle for a given
power level, this angle increases with distance. The power carrying capacity of ac lines
as a function of distance is shown in fig. Fig also shows the power carrying capacity of
DC lines which is unaffected by the distance of transmission. AC power flow control is
complex because angle cannot be changed easily/quickly.
Power flow through HVDC link is given by
by varies
by means of thyristor converter control and tap change control.
The power flow can be controlled quickly, easily and accurately.
In HVDC line does not have series reactance and shunt reactance, reactance
power flow. Hence there is no voltage regulation and stability problem. Transmission
losses are low due to absent of reactive power flow is HVDC systems.

vi). Problems of AC interconnection:

Two AC power systems ae interconnected through AC ties (synchronous inter
connection). The AGC (automatic generation control) of both systems have to be coordinated using tie-line power and frequency signals. The operation of ac lies can
problematic due to
i)Presence of large power oscillation which can lead to frequent tripping.
ii)Fault level increases
iii)Disturbances occurs from one system to other.
It is not possible to inter connect two different nominal frequency system. It
requires the DC link to interconnect such systems. By using HVDC link, it is
possible to interconnect two individually controlled AC systems which operate
different frequency.
vii). Ground Impedance:
In AC transmission, the flow of ground current cannot be permitted in the
steady state due to high ground impedance, which will effect the power
transfer and interference of telephone lines. For DC currents ground
impedance is negligible. In DC transmission in operating only one conductor
with return conductor act as ground for monopolar operation. If conductor is
buried metallic structures, ground return is objectionable because DC current
flows through that conductor leads corrosion.

viii) Short circuit level:

In AC transmission additional parallel lines always results in higher fault level at
receiving end due to reduction of the overall system impedance. And hence short circuit
livel increases. When an existing AC system is interconnected with another AC system
by DC transmission, the fault level of each system remains unchanged. Since the DC
line contributes no current to an ac short circuit beyond its rated current.
ix) Power per conductor and per circuit:
Let us assume that same conductor is used ac and dc transmission and each
case the current is limited by temperature rise.
and that the insulators withstand the same crest voltage to ground in each case
Ie.,
AC power/conductor
DC power/conductor
Now compare ac three phase, three conductors line with dc bipolar line then
Both lines carry the same power. The dc line as simple and cheaper, having two
conductors instead of three. Consequently an overhead line requires only 2/3 as many
insulators and the towers are simple, cheaper and narrow.

Choice of voltage levels:

In view of bulk power transmission over long distance, proper voltage level is
to be choosen to minimise the total costs for a given power level (P).
The total cost of power transmission includes investment cost C1 and cost of
losses C2.
The investment cost per unit length of line can be written as,

C1 K 0 K1nV K 2 nA
Where

Where

n = number of conductors
A = total cross section of each conductor
V = Voltage level with respect to ground
K 0 , K1 , K 2 are constants
The cost of losses per unit length is given by,
2
p
n
pTLp
nV

C2
A
p= specific resistance (or) resistivity of conductor
T = Total operation time during a year
L = Loss load factor
P = cost per unit energy

p
pTLp
V
C2
nA
2

p
pK 3
V

nA
where K3 = TLp
By minimising the sum of C2 and third term in C1 we have

p
K 3 p

K 2 nA
nA

K 3 nA

nA

p
K 3 p

K 2 p
p
K 3 V

Current density J is given by,

P V

J
nA

K3

P V
K2 p . P V

K 2 K3

Now, total cost can be written as,

C C1 C2

p

K 3 p

K 0 K1nV K 2 nA
nA

K 0 K1nA K 2

K3
p
p
p . K3 . p
K2 A
V
K3
p
p.
K2 A

p
p
K 0 K1nA K 2 K 3 p K 2 K 3 p
A
A

p
K 0 K1nA 2 K 2 K 3 p
A

The voltage is to be chosen to minimize the overall cost function is obtained

from the above equation above. Fig shows the selection of optimum system
voltage to minimize the sum of overall investment of converter, line cost and cost
of losses.
In case of back to back HVDC system, there will be no DC transmission
line costs. So that only the cost need to consider is the cost of converter station to
improve the reliability and performance of the system.

Modern trends in DC transmission:

Recent trends or developments in the technological aspects of power electronics,
power semiconductor devices, digital electronics, DC protection equipment have been
increased in the applications of DC transmission.
The main objective of these developments is to reduce the cost of converter
stations to improve the reliability and performance.
Power Semiconductor and Valves:
The cost of converter depends upon no. of devices used in it. If no of devices
connected in series or in parallel decreases then total cost of converters also decreased.
Overload capacity of device at reasonable cost will be high if its current rating
increases, moreover it leads to the reduction of transformer leakage impedance, there by
improving the power factor.
The cost of valves is reduced by using zincoxide gapless arresters and protective
firing methods.
Most of the power semiconductors devices uses silicon the cost of silicon may be
decreased by using magnetic CZ(czochralsli) method, rather than the conventional
FZ(float zone) method.

Usually, it is uneconomical to use forced commutated converters operating at high

voltages, which leads to the development of devices which can be turned off by the
application of gate signal.
Gate turn off devices (GTO) operating at 2500V and 2000A have a drawback of large
gate current to turned off.
But technology was developed for a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) controlled
thyristor for which a very small gate current is sufficient to interrupt a very large line
current.
Converter Control:
The development in converter control equipment is micro-computer based converter
control.
With the use of such converter control it is easier to design systems with automatic
transfer between systems during false operating.
This micro computer based control has the flexibility to use adaptive control algorithms
for fault identification and protection.

DC Circuit Breaker:
Recent developments in DC circuit breakers are useful in tapping of existing DC link
parallel operation of converters is allowed rather than series operation shows some
flexibility in the system growth.
In order to limit the fault current the dc breaker current should not to exceed the full
load ratings.
Conversion of Existing AC Lines:
o In certain cases such as to increase the power transfer limits it is necessary to
convert existing AC circuits to DC.
oIn India there is an experimental project of converting single circuit (or) double circuit
220kV line is currently under commissioning stage.
Operation with weak AC systems:
The strength of AC systems connected to the terminals of DC link is
measured in terms of short circuit ratio (SCR)
SCR = short circuit level at the converter bus / Rated DC power
If SCR<3, then it is weak AC system. For a weak AC system, conventional
constant extinction angle control may not be satisfactory.

In order to overcome the problems of weak AC systems constant reactive current control
(or) AC voltage control have been suggested. By using static VAR systems at the
converter bus fast reactive power control can be achieved.
It is necessary to limit the dynamic over voltages during load rejections through
converter control.
The dynamic stability of power systems can be improved by power modulation
techniques in the presence of weak AC systems.
Co-ordinated real and reactive power control must be necessary inorder to overcome the
problems of voltage variations which can limit the power modulation.
HVDC Systems in India:
There are two HVDC systems in India
i)Vindhyachal HVDC back to back systems
This link is for exchange of power between northern and western
regions. Each block consists of 250 MW capacitors, it can operate bidirectional and can
transfer power in the range of 250 MW to 250 MW depending on systems conditions.
This system is provided air insulated water cooled Thyristor valves designed for 12-pulse
operation, star extended delta, two winding transformer, AC filters, capacitors ( for
reactive power compensation), smoothing reactance etc.
ii)Rihand-Delhi Systems
This is setup between Rihand and delhi to transmit bulk power from
Rihand to Delhi. The capacity of system is +500kv, 1500MW, 810KM bipolar.

It is designed to operate bipolar, monopolar with ground return, monopolar

with metallic return. The system is operates bipolar mode under normal conditions,
under contingencies when one pole goes out of operation. The system automatically
transfer to monopolar mode with ground at return path.
In addition to above two HVDC systems, chandrapur back to back project,
chandrapur-padghu bipolar system, Jeypore back to back project and man back to
back project are also proposed.

Unit-II----Analysis of HVDC Converters

Introduction:
HVDC converters converts AC to DC and transfer the DC power, then DC is again
converted to AC by using inverter station.
HVDC system mainly consists of two stations, one in rectifier station which transfers
from AC to DC network and other is inverter station which transfers from DC to AC
network.
For all HVDC converters twelve pulse bridge converters are used. Same converter
can act as both rectifier as well as an inverter depending on the firing angle .
If firing angle is less than 90 degrees the converter acts in rectifier mode and if
the firing angle is greater than 90 degrees the converter acts in inverter mode.

Choice of Converter configuration

For a given pulse number select the configuration such a way that both the valve and
transformer utilization are minimized.
In general converter configuration can be selected by the basic commutation group
and the no. of such groups connected in series and parallel.
Commutation group means set of valves in which only one valve conducts at a time.
Let q be the no of valves in a commutation group,
r be the no of parallel connections,
s be the no of series connections, then
the total no of valves will be = qrs

Valve Voltage Rating:

Valve voltage rating is specified in terms of peak inverse voltage (PIV) it
can withstand.
The valve utilization is the ratio of PIV to average dc voltage.
Converter average DC voltage is

sq

Vdo Vm .sin

Vdo s.

q
2

V Cost.dt
m

sq
q
Vm Sint q
2
sq

i) Peak inverse voltage(PIV):

Vm .2.Sin
2
q
If q is even:
then the maximum inverse voltage occurs when the valve
with a phase displacement of radian in conducting and this is given by
PIV = 2Vm
If q is odd:
the maximum inverse voltage occurs when the valve with a
phase shift of +/q in conducting and this is given by
PIV = 2Vm Cos/2q

ii) Utilization factor:

Utilization factor =

PIV
2

, for q is even

Vdo
sq.sin
q

sq.sin
2q

, for q is odd

Analysis of Graetz circuit (6-pulse converter bridge):

The schematic diagram of a six-pulse Graetz circuit is shown in the fig.

This Graetz circuit utilizes the transformer and the converter unit to atmost level
and it maintains low voltage across the valve when not in conduction.
Due to this quality present in Graetz circuit, it dominates all other alternative
circuits from being implemented in HVDC converter.
The low voltage across the valves is nothing but the peak inverse voltage which
the valve should withstand.

 The six-pulse Graetz circuit consists of 6 valves arranged in bridge type and the
converter transformer having tappings on the AC side for voltage control.
AC supply is given for the three winding of the converter transformer connected in
star with grounded neutral.
The windings on the valve side are either connected in star or delta with ungrounded
neutral.
The six valves of the circuit are fired in a definite and fixed order and the DC output
obtained contains six DC pulses per one cycle of AC voltage wave.
a)Operation without overlap:
The six pulse converter without over lapping valve construction sequence are 1-2,
2-3, 3-4, 4-5, 5-6, 6-1.
At any instant two valves are conducting in the bridge. One from the upper group
and other from the lower group.
Each valve arm conducts for a period of one third of half cycle i.e., 60 degrees.
In one full cycle of AC supply there are six pulses in the DC waveform. Hence the
bridge is called as six pulse converter.

For simple analysis following assumptions are much:

i)AC voltage at the converter input is sinusoidal and constant
ii)DC current is constant
iii)Valves are assumed as ideal switches with zero impedance when on(conducting)
and with infinite impedance when off(not conducting)
In one full cycle of AC supply we will get 6-pulses in the output. Each
pair of the devices will conduct 60 degrees. The dc output voltage waveform repeats
every 60 degrees interval.
Therefore for calculation of average output voltages only consider
one pulse and multiply with six for one full cycle. In this case each device will fire for
120 deg.
Firing angle delay:
Delay angle is the time required for firing the pulses in a converter
for its conduction.
It is generally expressed in electrical degrees.
In otherwords, it is the time between zero crossing of commutation voltage and
starting point of forward current conduction.
The mean value of DC voltage can be reduced by decreasing the conduction
duration, which can be achieved by delaying the pulses ie., by increasing the delay
angle we can reduce the DC voltage and also the power transmission form one valve
to another valve can also be reduced.

 when = 0, the commutation takes place naturally and the converter acts as a
rectifier.
when > 60 deg, the voltage with negative spikes appears and the direction of power
flow is from AC to DC system without change in magnitude of current.
when = 90 deg, the negative and positive portions of the voltage are equal and
because of above fact, the DC voltage per cycle is zero. Hence the energy transferred is
zero.
when > 90 deg, the converter acts as an inverter and the flow of power is from DC
system to AC system.
Let valve 3 is fired at an angle of .
the DC output voltage is given by
Vdc = Vdo Cos
From above equation we can say that if firing
angle varies, the DC output voltage varies.

Vd eb ec ebc

ebc 2VLL Sin t 600

600

6
Vdc
2
3
Vdc

600

ebc .d t

2VLL Sin t 600 .d t

3 2
VLL Cos 600 Cos 1200

3 2

VLL Cos

1.35VLL Cos

DC Voltage waveform:
The dc voltage waveform contains a ripple whose frequency is six times
the supply frequency.
This can be analysed in Fourier series and contains harmonics of the
order
h=np
Where p is the pulse number and n is an integer.
The rms value of the hth order harmonic in dc voltage is given by

2
1 h 2 1 sin 2
Vh Vdo 2

h 1

1/2

Although can vary from 0 to 180 degrees, the full range cannot be utilized. In
order to ensure the firing of all the series connected thyristors, it is necessary to
provide a minimum limit of greater than zero, say 5 deg.
Also in order to allow for the turn off time of a valve, it is necessary to provide an
upper limit less than 180 deg.
The delay angle is not allowed to go beyond 180- where is called the
extinction angle (sometimes also called the marginal angle).
The minimum value of the extinction angle is typically 10 deg, although in normal
operation as an inverter, it is not allowed to go below 15deg or 18deg.

AC current waveform:
It is assumed that the direct current has no ripple (or harmonics) because of
the smoothing reactor provided in series with the bridge circuit.
The AC currents flowing through the valve (secondary) and primary windings
of the converter transformer contain harmonics.
The waveform of the current in a valve winding is shown in fig.

By Fourier analysis, the peak value of a line current of fundamental

frequency component is given by,
/3

2
Ip
I d .cos .d

/3
/3

2
I p .I d cos .d
/3
2Id

2I
Ip d

Ip

sin /3
/3

sin

sin

/
3

3
3
Q sin sin

2
2
2 3

Ip

2Id

Ip

2Id

Ip

2 3
.I d

Now the rms value of line current of fundamental frequency component is given
by

I RMS

I RMS

Ip

2
2 3
.I d

2

I RMS
I RMS

2 3.I d
2
6
.I d

Generally, the RMS value of nth harmonic is given by,

where I = Fundamental current
n = nth order harmonic.

I
In
n

The harmonics contained in the current waveform are of the order given by
h = np + 1
where n is an integer, p is the pulse number.
For a 6 pulse bridge converter, the order of AC harmonics are 5, 7, 11, 13 and
higher order.
They are filtered out by using tuned filters for each one of the first four harmonics
and a high pass filter for the rest.
The Power Factor:
The AC power supplied to the converter is given by

PAC 3ELL I1 cos

where cos is the power factor.
The DC power must match the AC power ignoring the losses in the
converter. Thus, we get

PAC PDC Vdo I d 3ELL I1 cos

6
I d , we obtain
Substituting for Vdc = Vdo Cos , and I1=

cos = cos
The reactive power requirements are increased as is increased from 0
When = 90 deg, the power factor is zero and only reactive power is consumed.

ii) With overlap:

In fig
Lc indicates leakage inductance of transfromer
Vd, Id = DC voltage and current flowing in the line
Ld = DC side reactance
V1 = voltage across the thyristors
p,n = positive and negative pole on the line
Due to the leakage inductance of the converter transformers and the
impedance in the supply network, the current in a valve cannot change suddenly and
thus commutation from one valve to the next cannot be instantaneous.
For example, when valve 3 is fired, the current transformer from valve 1 to
valve 3, takes a finite period during which both valves are conducting. This is called
overlap and its duration is measured by the overlap (commutation) angle .

Commutation delay:
The process of transfer of current from one path to another path with both
paths carrying current simultaneously is known overlap.
The time required for commutation or overlapping which is expressed in
electrical degrees is done with commutation angle, denoted by .
During normal operating conditions the overlap angle is in the range of 0 to 60
degrees, in which two (or) three valves are conducting.
However, if the overlap angle is the range of 60 to 120 degrees, then three to
four valves are in conducting state which is known as abnormal operation mode.
During commutation period, the current increases from 0 to Id in the incoming
valve and reduces to zero from Id in the outgoing valve.
The commutation process begins with delay angle and ends with extinction
angle ie., it starts when t = and ends when t = + = , where is known as an
extinction angle.

There are three modes of the converter as follows:

1.Mode-1----Two and three valve conduction (<60 deg)
2.Mode-2----Three valve conduction (=60 deg)
3.Mode-3---- Three and four valve conduction (>60 deg)
Depending upon the delay angle , the mode 2 must be just a point on the
boundary of modes 1 and 3.
i)Analysis of Two and Three valve conduction mode:
Generally overlap angle will be less than 60 deg, so let us analyse this
mode.

Timing diagram

In this mode each interval of the period of supply can be divided into two
subintervals.
In the first subinterval, three valves are conducting and in the second
subinterval, two valves are conducting.

Let us assume the input voltages

ea Em cos | t 600 |
eb Em cos | t 600 |
ec Em cos | t 1800 |
Corresponding line voltages are eac , eba, ecb
eac ea ec
Em cos(t 600 ) Em cos(t 1800 )
Em (cos(t 600 ) cos(t 1800 ))

1
3
Em | cos t. sin t.
cos t |
2
2

3
Em cos t
sin t
2
2

3
1
cos t sin t |
2
2
1

3Em cos 300 cos t sin t

2

3 Em |

eac

3Em cos(t 300 )

eba Em cos(t 600 ) Em cos(t 600 )

Em ((cos t cos 600 sin t sin 600 ) (cos t cos 600 sin t sin 60 0 ))

1
3
1
Em cos t. sin t. cos t. sin t.
2
2
2

3
3Em (sin t )
2

eba 3Em sin t

ecb Em (cos(t 180) cos(t 600 ))

Em (cos t.cos1800 sin t sin1800 cos t cos 600 sin t sin 60 0 )
3

3
Em
cos t sin t
2
2

1
3Em
cos t sin t
2
2

ecb 3Em cos(t 1500 )

Each valve will conduct for 120 degrees and each pair will conduct for 60
degrees, if there is no overlap.
Let us consider non-overlap of only valve 1,2 conducting followed by overlap of 3 with 1.
Ie., 1,2 and 3 conducting.
When only valve 1 and 2 conducting

ia ic I1 I 2 I d
ib I 3 I 4 I 5 I 6 0
Va V p ea Em cos(t 600 )
Vb eb Em cos(t 600 )
Vc Vn ec Em cos(t 1800 )
Vd V p Vn ea ec eac 3Em cos(t 300 )

V1 V2 0
V3 eba 3Em sin t
V4 Vn V p Vd
V5 Vn V p Vd
V6 ec eb ecb 3Em cos(t 1500 )
When valve 3 is fired then 3 will overlap with 1 and it will be 3 valve
conduction periods ie., 1, 2 and 3.
For this period the emanation for the voltage and current are different and
thus can be obtained as follows:

Consider that valve 3 is ignited at angle and for overlap angle both 1 and 3 conduct
together.
The duration of overlap 1 and 3 will conduct top with 2 at the bottom as shown in the fig.
Just at the beginning, t =
At t =

i1 I d
i3 0

When the overlap ends at an angle (+)

At t = (+)

i1 0

i3 I d
The angle (+) is called extinction angle
During overlap a loop is formed as N-3-1-N
For this loop,

di3
di1
eb ea Lc
Lc
dt
dt

di3
di1
3Em sin t Lc
Lc
dt
dt

Assuming the dc current either i1 alone conduct, i3 alone when 3 alone

conducts should be equal to Id
So both 1 and 3 conduct overlap

i 1 i3 I d
i1 I d i3
So

Integrating both sides

di3
di
Lc (id i3 )
dt
dt
di3
3Em sin t 2 Lc
dt
3Em sin t Lc

3Em sin t.dt 2 Lc di3

t

3 Em

sin t.dt 2 L di
c

3Em
t
cos t i3
2 Lc .
i3

3Em
cos cos t I d i1
2 Lc .

At t = (+);

i3 I d
Id

3 Em
cos cos( )
2 Lc

I d I s 2 cos cos( )
(or)
where

i3 I d i1
I s 2

3 Em
cos cos t
2 Lc

3 Em
2 Lc

During overlap the line-line voltage of the short circuited phase is zero and two
line to neutral voltage Va and Vb during which overlapping period.
Half sum of Va and Vb, Va Vb ea eb
2

Em (cos t 600 ) cos(t 600 )

2
Em (cos t.cos 600 sin t.sin 60 0 cos t.cos 600 sin t.sin 60 0 )
2
0
Em .2 cos t.cos 60
2
Em
ec
cos t
Va Vb
2

During this overlap period various voltages and currents are

ia i1 I d i3 I d I s 2 (cos cos t )
ib i3 I s 2 (cos cos t )
ic i2 I d
i4 i5 I 6 0
e1
cos t
Em
2
2
Vc Vn ec Em cos t (or ) Em cos(t 180)
Va Vb V p

V1 V2 V3 0 , bring conducting devices

V4 Vd
V5 Vd
V6 Vd
Vd V p Vn

ec
ec
2

3
Em cos t
2

Similarly sets of equations apply for other overlap period such as between 3 and 5 (or) 4
and 6 (or) between 6 and 2 etc. with only appropriate change in time.

i) Expression for average DC voltage

During one cycle there will be six pulse of DC voltage each pulse having one
non-overlap duration and one overlap duration.
For example between and (+) devices 1,2 and 3 will conduct, (+) to +/3
when only 3 and 2 will conduct. Total duration for the pulse being /3.

Vd

Em cos t 3Em cos t 1500 d t

2

1, 2, 3 conduct

3 & 2 conduct

3 3Em

sin( ) sin 3Em sin 2100 sin 1500

3 3 Em
3 3Em
.
(sin sin )
sin 2100 cos cos 210 0 sin sin .cos150 0 cos sin1500

3.3.Em
3 3Em 1
3
3
1

cos

sin

sin

cos

sin sin

2
2
2
2
2

3 3Em
2

3 sin sin cos 3 sin 3 sin cos

3 3Em
2

3 sin 3 sin cos 3 sin 3 sin cos

Vd

3 3E
cos cos
2

3 3E
cos cos
2
V
Vd do cos cos
2
Vd

When E = rms phase voltage

If = 0; = 0
3 3E
Vd
2
2

Vd
If = 0, no overlap

3 3E
Vdo

Vd Vdo cos

ii) Voltage drop due to overlap

Vd = output voltage with out overlap output voltage with overlap
Vdo
cos cos
2
V
V
Vdo cos do cos do cos
2
2
V
V
do cos do cos
2
2
Vdo
cos cos
Voltage drop due to overlap, Vd
2
We know I d I s 2 cos cos
Vdo cos

cos cos

Id
Is2

Substituting the above expression in Vd, we get

Vdo I d
Vd

2 I s 2

1
3Em

L
c

3Em

2 Lc
3Em

V
do .I d

QI s 2

Vdo

Vdo
2 Lc
Id .
2
3Em

Vd

I d Lc

Lc I d

Vd Rc I d
where

3
2 fLc

Rc 6 fLc
Rc

Rc

= Equivalent commutation resistance

DC voltage and valve voltage waveforms for rectifier when =15 deg,
= 15 deg, = 30 deg

Inversion:
In HVDC converters thyristor is used, it is a unidirectional device.
The current in a converter cannot be reversed.
Therefore power reversal can be obtained only by reversal of the average DC
voltage.
Converter will operate as a rectifier for firing angle < 90 deg, and power flows from
AC to DC side.
When firing angle > 90 deg, the average output power Pd becomes negative and
power flows form DC to AC.
For an inverter, it is usal to define an advance angle = -, also =
Vdi

Therefore

Vdoi
cos cos
2

Vdoi
cos cos
2
V
doi cos cos
2

I di I s 2 cos cos

Also

Vdi Vdoi cos Rci I d

or

Vdi Vdoi cos Rci I d

Inverter voltage and Valve voltage

= 15 deg = 15 deg = 30 deg

Comparision of waveforms of Rectifiers and Inverters:

i)Rectifier average voltage across valve is negative, average voltage across inverter
valve is positive.
ii)Both rectifier and inverter modes of operation, the voltage across the valve is negative
immediately after extinction of the arc, but in case of inverter valve voltage in negative
much shorter duration than in the rectifier.
iii)In both modes of operation, voltage across valve is positive just before conduction
begins, but in the rectifier it is positive for short duration than in the inverter
iv)Four minor voltage jumps per cycle, two of which are half as at ignition and other half
of that at extinction.

Control Concept in HVDC:

Vdo2 cos B

Rc2

Vd2

Vdo1

RL

Vd1

AC

Vdo1 cos a

Rc1

Rectifier

Equivalent circuit of a HVDC transmission link

AC
Vdo2

One of the major advantages of a HVDC link is the rapid controllability of transmitted
power through the control of firing angle of the converters.
Modern converter control are not only fast but also very reliable and they are use for
protection against line and converter faults.
The current in a dc link operating in steady state is given by ohms law

Vdo1Cos Vdo 2Cos or Cos

Id
Rc1 RL Rc 2

Where RL= link resistance

Rc1 and Rc2 = rectifier and inverter resistance
In above equation cos is used with +Rc2 in the inverter, operates constant ignition
angle, (or) cos and Rc2 if extinction angle is constant.
If the line is uniform and if Rc1=Rc2 the voltage at the midpoint of the line as well as the
current can be controlled by controlling the internal voltages.
Each internal voltage can be controlled by either
1.Firing angle control
2. Control of alternating voltage usually by tap changes of converter transformer.
Firing angle control is rapid but tap changing is slow both thus means of
control are applied co-operatively at each terminal.
Firing angle control is used initially for rapid action and in followed tap-changing
for restore is for the rectified or voltage in the inverter.

AC current and DC voltage Harmonics:

The current waveform of the valve is distorted. The actual expression for the
current can be derived from fourier analyses.

The fundamental current,

where

2 1/2
12

I1 I I
2
11

6 cos cos
Id

6 2 sin 2 sin 2
I11 I1 sin
Id

4
cos

cos

I11 I1 cos

where is the power factor angle

From the equations, the power factor angle is

2 sin 2 sin 2
cos 2 cos 2
I
1
A2 B 2 2 AB cos 2
h
I ho 2n
tan

where

sin h 1
2 ,B
2
h 1
h 1

sin h 1

1
cos cos

2
Harmonic component with no overlap
n

I ho

From the fig all the harmonics

especially of higher order, decreases
sharply with increases of and the
reduction factor lies in the range 0.1
to 0.2
Variation of AC current harmonics
with overlap-----------------------------

6 Id
h

1/ 2

The DC voltage harmonics are altered due to overlap is

where

Vh 1 2

C D 2 2CD cos 2
Vdo 2

cos h 1
2
C
h 1

cos h 1
2
D
h 1

1
2

ii) Overlap Angle greater than 60 degrees:

Overlap angle is in greater than 60 deg is abnormal, this will occur only at low
alternating voltage.
In this case minimum no. of valves conducting are 3, and there are intervals when
four valves are conducting.
This is because when commutation process started, the previous valves are not yet
completed.
When four valves are conducting they constitute a three-phase short circuit on the
ac source and a pole-to-pole short circuit on the dc terminals.

Equivalent circuit for four valve conduction

Is2
Id
cos 300 cos 300
3
Average Direct voltage

Vd Vdo

3 I d
3 cos 30

2 I s 2

Combined Characteristics of Rectifier and Inverter:

The relation between Vd, Id is called a characteristic of the converter
We know that
Vd Vdo cos

Vdo
cos cos
2

Vdo
cos cos
2
Vd
1
cos cos
Vdo 2

Vd

where Vdo no load direct voltage

Vd Direct voltage on load with delay angle and overlap angle .

Id

Similarly
where

Vd
cos cos
2Xl

X l 2 fLc Lc
Vd

Vd 1

cos cos cos cos

Vdo 2
2
2

Id

Id
1

cos cos sin sin

2I s 2
2
2

For fixed value of delay angle , different values of Vd/Vdo can be found for various
values of overlap angle .
The curves are plotted with Vd/Vdo on y-axis and Id/2Is on X-axis.
It is possible to change operating point on Vd/Id characteristic by changing

Inverter:
The Inverter characteristics are similar to the rectifier characteristics.
Inverter operation requires a minimum commutation margin angle during which the
voltage across the valve is negative.
Hence the operating region of an Inverter is different from that for a rectifier.

Coice of Best Circuit for HVDC Converters:

Different HVDC converter circuits are discussed as follows:
1- Full-Wave Rectifiers
In this circuit contains two valve, and centre tap transformers.
In fig shown the line-to-neutral secondary voltage e1 and e2, having a phase difference
of one half period 180 deg.
During positive half cycle valve-1 conducts and during negative half cycle valve2 conducts.
The average DC voltage is shown in fig.
When valve-2 in conducting, the total secondary voltage appears across
valve-1, similarly when valve-1 is conducting e2-e1 appears across valve-2.
The primary mmf must oppose the secondary mmf.

Voltage:
i)Average voltage is

1
Voltage Vd Em Sint.d t
0
Em

Cost 0

2E
Vd m

Em Vd
2
Em 1.57Vd

ii) Peak inverse voltage:

PIV 2 Em 2. Vd
2
Vd
3.142Vd

Currents:
For half of secondary winding

I davg
I dRMS

Id
0.5 I d
2

I d2

2

1/ 2

V A rating:
VA rating of valve PIV I avg
For 1- full wave converter

2 PIV I avg
2 Vd
.Vd I d
.Pd

VA rating

3.142 Pd

Id
2

Id
0.707 I d
2

Transformer rating:
Transformer secondary rating 2 I rms Erms

Id

Vd
2 2 2

I dVd
2
1.571Pd
Transformer primary rating 1.111TVd

Id
1.111Pd
T

Q Primary voltage has crest value Tem and RMS value 0.707TEm

1.111TVd

Bridge Rectifiers:
During positive half cycle of AC supply valve 1 and 2 are conduct , load side
voltage is same as source.
During negative half cycle valve 3 and 4 are conducting the load voltage and
valve voltage are shown in fig.
Although the bridge circuit may appear more complicated then the full wave
circuit because it has four valves instead of two, the secondary winding is used more
effectively and the PIV of each valve has been halved for a given DC output voltage.
Therefore Peak Inverse Voltage, PIV = Em
Voltage
i)Average voltage,

1
Vd

Sint.d t

2 Em

Em Vd
2
Em 1.57Vd
Vd

ii)

PIV Em 1.57Vd

Currents:
I davg
I drms

Id
0.5 I d
2

I d2

2

1/ 2

0.707 I d

VA rating:
VA rating of valve

PIV I davg

For bridge rectifier

VA rating of all valves

4 PIV I davg

4 Vd I davg
2
I dVd
3.14 Pd
Transformer rating:
VA rating of secondary winding = primary winding = 1.111Pd

Three-Phase Rectifier:
For large amount of power is required we go for three-phase rectifier.
In this rectifier ripple is smalls in magnitude and higher in frequency than in 1-
Converters.
In this circuit direct current in the secondary winding saturates the transformer
cores. To avoid saturation Y-connection is replaced by the zig-zag connection, in which
the DC mmfs of the two secondary winding on the same core canal out.
i)Average voltage,

1500

E Sint.d t
2 300 m
3
3E
1500
m Cost 300
2
3E 2 3
3 3Vm
m
0.826 Em

2 2
2
Vd 0.826 Em
Em 1.209Vd

ii)PIV = max voltage appeared across SCR when it is not conducting

PIV 3Em

3 1.209Vd
2.094Vd

iii) Average current,

I davg

1500

30

id .d t

1
1500

id 300
2
I
I davg d 0.333I d
3

iv) RMS current,

I dRMS

1500

300

1/2

I d2 d t

Id
3
0.5773I d

v) Volt-Amp rating of all valves = No. of valves x PIV x Avg. current/valve

I
3 3 Em d
3
I
3 3 1.209Vd d
3
2.0940 Pd

vi) VA rating of transformer secondary winding

3 I rms Erms
3

Id
E
m
3
2

2
Pd
3
1.481Pd

3- Bridge Rectifier:
In the 3- mid point rectifier load voltage is equal to line to neutral voltage and it
is line to line voltage.
The circuit is shown in fig. is a 3- full wave bridge rectifier (or) 3- six-pulse
bridge rectifier .
In this circuit upper group device will conduct when supply voltage is most
positive where as lower group devices will conduct when supply voltage is most
negative.

i) Average voltage:

6
Vd
2
90

900

30

AB

d t

3
3Em sin t 300 dt
300
3 3Em

cos t 300

900
300

3 3 Em

Em
Vd 0.604Vd
3 3
Vd

ii) Peak inverse voltage,

iii)
Peak-Peak ripple =
iv) Average current,
v) RMS current,

PIV 3Em 3 0.604Vd 1.046Vd

(1 cos 300 ) 3Em 0.134 1.047Vd 0.140Vd
I avg
I rms

1500

300
5 /6

/6

2
Id
3
0.816 I d

vi) VA rating of valves

PIV I avg
3Em

Vd I d
9

I d d t

Id
3

Id
0.333I d
3

I d2t I d2 dt
7 /6

11 /6