Designs of Road

DESIGN OF ROADS
Design Criteria /
Standards
1.0 DESIGN STANDARDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Road Classification is very important
since the first step in the design
process is to define the function that
the road is to serve whether as an
arterial road, collector or local street.
We have to determine the function of
the road so that we can apply the
appropriate set of design criteria.
11/16/16
Engr. Edwin G. Azurin
1.2 DEFINITION
Design Criteria/Standards are generally
accepted set of values considered reliable
or authoritative which is used as the basis
for designs. Some commonly accepted
criteria/standards are supported by
research while others represent a pooling
of judgment of many design engineers.
Seldom however can they be considered
as exact beyond debate. Design
Criteria/Standards are minimum
requirements which could either be a
minimum value, as in minimum radius or a
maximum value, as in maximum
recommended superelevation.
11/16/16
1.3 PURPOSE AND DEPARTURE FROM

STANDARDS
The primary purpose of establishing the
Design Criteria/Standards is to provide
consistency in the designs. By adapting
these Criteria/Standards and avoiding
abrupt changes in these standards, we
would be ensuring that every design
element conform to the drivers
expectations while using the road
thereby contributing to a smooth flowing
and accident-free facility.
11/16/16
Design policies and standards generally represent

minimum requirements caution should therefore be
exercised when using borderline values. Higher or
optimum standards may be used within reasonable
economic limits. To ensure uniform practice, lower
design standards should not be used unless it has been
reviewed by the Bureau of Design and approved by the
concerned DPWH Secretary.
11/16/16
1.4 SOURCES OF STANDARDS AND OTHER

PUBLICATIONS
Introduction to the sources of the basic criteria
and other books would be one of the most
important benefits we can derive from this
presentation. Some of the more important
reference materials are the following:
A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways,
AASHTO, 1965
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
AASHTO, 2001
Design Guidelines, Criteria and Standards, Volume II,
DPWH
Highway Engineering, Oglesby & Hicks, Wiley & Sons,
1982
Highway Planning Manual, Volume II, DPWH, 1982
DPWH Standard Specification, Volume II, 2004
11/16/16
2.0 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

The designer should always bear in mind these
following basic considerations.
Functionality. The design must be simple yet
functional in respect to traffic volume, vehicle
type and design speed requirements.
Consistency. The design must be consistent and
must avoid abrupt changes in design elements.
Aesthetics. The design must be pleasing to the
user and to those living along it.
Completeness. The design must be complete
ensure effectiveness of the design by providing
the necessary road signs, pavement markings
and other important road appurtenances.
11/16/16
The designer should always bear in mind

these following basic considerations.
(continuation)
Costs. The design must be economical this pertain not
only to construction costs but to maintenance costs as
well (consider life cycle costs).
Safety. The design must be safe for driving and should
ensure confidence for motorists.
11/16/16
3.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
The volume of traffic, type of traffic and the required

level of service are the factors determining the
number and width of lanes, the width of shoulders and
the design speed. All other design elements are a
consequence of the design speed.
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10
The geometric parameters that contribute

to the attainment of a given design speed
are the following:
3.1 SIGHT DISTANCE
Sight Distance is the distance along the
roadway that an object is continuously
visible to the driver. This should be
considered in the preliminary stages of
design when the horizontal and vertical
alignment could still be subject to
adjustments.
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11
Two of the most common types
3.1.1 Stopping or Non-Passing Sight

Distance
The design stopping sight distance is the minimum
distance required for a vehicle traveling at design speed
to stop before reaching an object on its path. It is the
sum of the following:
D1, the distance during perception and

brake reaction time, and
D2, the braking distance on wet pavements.
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12
3.1.2 Passing Sight Distance (see Exhibit 3-4 for

illustration)
The design passing sight distance is the
minimum distance required to safely make a
normal passing maneuver on 2-lane highways
at passing speeds common to nearly all
drivers. It is the sum of the following:
d1, Initial maneuver distance. The distance
traversed during perception and brake reaction
time and during the initial acceleration to the
point of encroachment on the left lane.
d2, Distance while passing vehicle occupies the
left lane.
d3, Clearance Length. The distance between the
passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and
the opposing vehicle.
d4, Distance traversed by the opposing vehicle.
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13
3.1.3 Sight Distance Controls

On crest vertical curves, the sight
distance is limited by the roadway
surface. On horizontal curves, it is
limited by a lateral obstruction beyond
the roadway, such as a cut slope, clump
of trees, bridge abutments, etc.
Design Controls:
Height of Eye = 1.07 m.
Height of Object = 0.15 m. (stopping)
Height of Object = 1.30 m. (stopping)
11/16/16
14
3.1.4 Measuring Sight Distances

Sight Distance measurements is useful
in determining the portion of road where
sight distance is restricted (design
speed cannot be met has an effect on
capacity) and in determining no passing
zones which should serve as a guide
when placing pavement markings once
the road is completed.
11/16/16
15
Steps in measuring horizontal sight distance:

Locate the horizontal obstruction in the
plan cut slope obstruction is shown in the
plans by a line representing the proposed
excavation slope at a point about 0.60 m.
(for stopping sight distance) or 1.20 m.
(for passing sight distance) above the road
surface.
Place the edge of a straightedge tangent
to this line.
The intersection of the edge and the road
centerline is the measured sight distance.
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16
Steps in measuring vertical sight distance:
1. Construct a transparent strip in the appropriate scale (same as

profile scale).
2. Place point A on the station where vertical sight distance is
desired.
3. Pivot the strip about point A until the upper edge is tangent to
the profile.
4. The distance between point A and the station on the profile
intersected by the 0.15 m. line is the stopping sight distance.
5. The distance between point A and the station on the profile
intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight
distance.
11/16/16
17
3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The alignment of a road is a series of
straight line called tangents connected
by curves. Normally, the largest possible
radius of curvature (flatter curves)
should be provided unless earthworks,
R.O.W. constraints and other critical
conditions govern.
11/16/16
18
Two types of curves commonly used:

3.2.1 Circular Curves
Because of its perceived simplicity in calculations,
circular/simple curves are widely used locally. The main
drawback in the use of circular curves is in the
development of superelevation especially in the critical
borderline values of design speed and degree of curve.
For this reason, circular curves should be used only
when flatter curves are prevalent. Along tangents, there
is no centrifugal force but at the point of curvature, full
centrifugal force develops at once. The change from
normal crown to full superelevation is therefore effected
partly on the tangent and partly on the curve. This could
be uncomfortable to the driver and to his passengers
especially on sharper curves at higher speeds.
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19
3.2.2 Circular with Transition

Highways with volume of traffic that
justify a higher level of service should be
designed with geometric characteristics
more appropriate to its importance. To
this end, the use of the Euler or
Clothoid transition curves positioned
after the tangent and before the circular
curve was introduced. Clothoids are
recommended on all curves with
superelevation.
11/16/16
20
The principal advantages of using

transition curves
Properly designed transition curves provide a
natural easy-to-follow path for drivers which
minimize encroachment of the opposite lane
when entering or leaving a curve.
The transition curve length provides a
convenient mode of effecting superelevation.
The transition curve length provides a
convenient mode of effecting widening.
Transition curves enhance the appearance of the
highway noticeable breaks at the beginning
and end of circular curves are thus avoided.
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21
The general objection voiced against the use of transition

curves owing to its calculation being tedious and possibly
beyond many location and design engineers is negated
by the use of convenient design tables and the advent of
computers. Perhaps the only constraint with use of
transition curves would be the possible R.O.W. problems
on already existing alignments that could be
encountered with the insertion of transition curves.
11/16/16
22
3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

Alignment should be directional as possible, but should
be consistent with topography.
Flatter curves should be used as much as possible, with
sharper curves used only on critical situations.
Consistent alignment should be observed. Avoid abrupt
changes from tangents to sharp curves.
Avoid the presence of kinks in the alignment by using
sufficiently longer curves.
Avoid abrupt reversal in alignment (it is difficult for
drivers to keep to their lane). Also, superelevation may
not be effected adequately.
Tangents are recommended on high, long fills.
11/16/16
23
3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

(continuation)
When compound curves are necessary, R1 should not
exceed 1.5 R2.
Avoid broken back curves (drivers usually expect
succeeding curves to be in opposite direction).
Horizontal alignment should be coordinated closely with
profile.
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24
3.3 SUPERELEVATION
Superelevation is the transversal
inclination of the road along the curve
sections also called banking of curves.
When a vehicle travels on a curved
section of the roadway, the vehicle is
forced radially outwards by the
centrifugal force. This force is
counteracted by the side friction
developed between the tires and the
road and the superelevation.
11/16/16
25
In the DPWH Design Guidelines, it was

assumed that the centrifugal force resulting
from a speed equal to of the design
speed is counteracted by the effects of the
superelevation (with the balance assumed
to be counteracted by the design friction).
Consistent with AASHTO policy, the DPWH
Design Guidelines set the generally
desirable maximum superelevation rate of
8% (or 0.80 meter per meter width of the
roadway). For road systems where
superelevation is a major design control,
other limiting rates can be applied.
11/16/16
26
3.3.1 Formula
The required superelevation for various design

speeds and radius is given by the formula:
where:
e = superelevation in m/m
V = design speed in kph.
R = radius of curve in m.
11/16/16
27
3.3.2 Superelevation Run-off

o
Superelevation run-off is the length of

the roadway needed to accomplish the
change in cross slope from a normal
crown to a fully superelevated section
for practical purposes, the required
length of spiral. Regardless of road
width and superelevation rate,
recommended minimum run-off lengths
should be between 30 to 75 m.
11/16/16
28
Length of the superelevation run-off could be

determined using the formula:
where:
W = width of road in m
nc = normal crown slope in m/m
e = superelevation in m/m
s = relative slope between road edge & centerline
11/16/16
29
Design Speed (kph)
Maximum Relative Slope between

Edge of Pavement and Centerline
(%)
30
0.75
40
0.70
50
0.65
60
0.60
70
0.55
80
0.50
90
0.45
100
0.40
Note: In some cases, especially on reverse curves, the values,

for s may exceeded, but seldom beyond 1%
11/16/16
30
3.3.3 Method of Attaining Superelevation

The most common method of attaining
superelevation Is rotation about the centerline
profile.
On simple curves, 2/3 of the superelevation runoff is placed on the tangent while remaining 1/3
is placed on the curve - - the effect would be
superelevating when not yet needed (on
tangents) and less applied superelevation (from
point of curvature) when there is already full
centrifugal force.
On curves with transition, the superelevation
run-off is effected on the whole length of the
spiral (centrifugal force gradually developed
along the curve is properly counteracted by the
gradual application of superelevation).
11/16/16
31
3.3.3 Method of Attaining

Superelevation (cont.)
On compound curves, there should be a
transition length where the decrease (or
increase) in superelevation, if any, could be
effected.
On reverse curves, the point of reverse
curvature has a flat road surface with
superelevation developed on the respective
curve.
11/16/16
32
3.4
WIDENING
Pavement widening on curves is the

difference in pavement width required
on a curved and that used on a tangent.
On sharp curves, widening is provided to
account for such factors as:
1. the difficulty of some drivers in steering
on the center of their lane, and
2. the increased vehicle width because rear
wheels generally track inside front
wheels.
11/16/16
33
Exhibit 3-51 gives the recommended

pavement widening values depending on
the degree of curve and design speed,
however for roads with significant truck
trailer traffic it would be best to
recalculate pavement widening values
based on AASHTO formulas. For simplicity
and consistency, widening should be
applied with the same method of attaining
the superelevation.
Refer to AASHTO Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways for discussions on
minimum turning path radius for trucks.
11/16/16
34
3.5 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Simplicity in use and its close
approximation of the necessary
transition when entering and leaving a
curve are the reasons why parabolic
curves are used to connect tangents
along the vertical alignment. Parabolic
curves may either be symmetrical or
unsymmetrical the latter should be
avoided when possible. Vertical
parabolic curves should provide
adequate sight distance, safety, comfort
(change in direction should be gradual),
good drainage and pleasing appearance.
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35
3.5.1 Maximum Gradient

Most passenger cars are readily negotiate
grades as steep as 7 to 8% without
appreciable loss of speed. On mountainous
terrain, 12% is the recommended maximum
gradient.
3.5.2 Minimum Gradient

For economy of vehicle operation, grades
should be as flat as possible. Level grades
should be used only on adequately crowned
(for lateral drainage) road sections on high
fills. A minimum of 0.35% gradient on high
type pavements and 0.50% gradient on
through cut sections should be provided to
effect longitudinal drainage.
11/16/16
36
3.5.3 Critical Length of Upgrade
For a 20T truck, this critical length of

upgrade will effect a 25 kph reduction in
speed below the average running speed.
The following critical length of upgrade
should be used as a guide, particularly in
providing motoring information to drivers:
11/16/16
Upgrade (%)
Critical Length of
Upgrade (m)
540
340
240
200
170
150
37
3.5.4 Design Control Sight Distance

The required length of crest vertical
curves to satisfy the requirements of
minimum stopping sight distance, comfort
and appearance should not be shorter
than:
where
L
= minimum length of vertical curve, m
K = constant for varying design speed

algebraic difference in grades
11/16/16
38
RECOMMENDED K VALUE:
Terrain
FLAT
Design Speed
ROLLING
MOUNTAINOUS
70 kph
60 kph
minimum K Value 10
15
absolute desirable absolute
25
desirable
40 kph
12
absolute
30
10
desirable
The minimum requirement of vertical curve without considering K-value is 60 m.

AASHTO observed that the minimum lengths for crest vertical curve appear to
be suitable for sag vertical curves; therefore minimum recommended lengths
are applicable in both situations. Lengths of sag vertical curves shorter than
these minimum may be justified for economic reasons in cases where an
existing element, such as structure not ready for replacement, controls the
vertical profile.
To provide for passing sight distance in the design of crest vertical curves is
impractical due to the resulting cost for crest cuts and the difficulty of fitting the
longer curves to the terrain. Ordinarily, passing sight distance can be provided
only on sections of road without crest vertical curves, or those having very
small algebraic difference in grades.
11/16/16
39
3.5.5 Other General Controls for Vertical Alignment

A smooth gradeline consistent with type of highway
and character of terrain is preferable over a gradeline
with numerous breaks and short tangent lengths.
The roller coaster or hidden-dip type of profile
should be avoided.
Avoid long upgrades, which on the opposite lane, may
undesirably result to high downgrade speed to trucks.
Avoid broken back gradeline.
On long upgrades, it is preferable to break the
sustained grade by introducing short intervals of
lighter grade.
11/16/16
40
(continuation)
On intersections at end of upgrades, it is

desirable to reduce the grade trough
intersection.
Climbing lanes (extra lane) should be
considered where critical length of upgrade is
exceeded particularly for higher traffic roads.
11/16/16
41
3.6 COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL

ALIGNMENT
There should be coordination between

horizontal and vertical alignment these should
not be designed independently. The reason why
presentation of drawings is such that the plan is
shown on the upper portion while the profile is
shown at the lower part is to facilitate checking.
Always refer to the cross sections so that even
at the early stages of design, the designer can
already visualize locations of excessive cuts or
fills and take note of other design controls
before making the decision regarding design
adjustments.
11/16/16
42
4.0 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
4.1 RIGHT OF WAY
oFor national roads, minimum R.O.W. should

be 30 m.
oFor multilane high capacity roads, the
R.O.W. width should be dictated by the
required number of lanes (including
allowance for a wider highway section), the
median, the curb and sidewalk, ramps, etc.
oIn undeveloped areas, minimum R.O.W.
should be 60m.
11/16/16
43
(continuation)
Where existing R.O.W. are widened through

developed places, it is best to do the
widening on one side to minimize property
damage. Better design of existing
alignment is always preferable than the
road being controlled by the existing
facility, however, overall economy of
designs should always be taken into
consideration.
The location of existing properties,
especially fixed structures should be
indicated in the plans to guide the designer
in the proper choice of alignment.
11/16/16
44
4.2 DRAINAGE
Drainage should have adequate capacities
and should be so located to minimize
damage to property, to prevent saturation
of the roadbed (always keep water out of
the road) and to avoid flooding.
On curbed sections, inlet should be
properly spaced for quick draining.
Whenever practicable, the full cross
section should be carried over culverts
bridges there should be no reduction of
carriageway and shoulder width.
11/16/16
45
4.3 ROAD SIGN AND PAVEMENT MARKINGS

Although safety and efficiency of operation depend much
on the geometric design, the road must also be provided
with effective means of controlling, warning and
informing motorists.
Three general types of highway signs:

Regulatory Signs indicates the required method of
traffic movement
Warning signs indicates hazardous conditions to
drivers.
Guide Signs used to direct traffic along the road or
towards a destination.
11/16/16
46
Pavement markings, particularly the center

line markings are important elements that
guide the drivers especially at night.
Caution should be exercised when using the
edge markings on 2-lane highways since
studies indicate that drivers tend to veer
towards the center on these roads which
could be hazardous during higher speeds.
11/16/16
47
4.4 EROSION CONTROL

Generally could be effected with the use of flat side
slopes, slope roundings, properly designed drainage
channels, the use of lined ditches, introduction of
interceptor ditches, berms and by sodding of affected
slopes.
4.5 ROADSIDE TURNOUT AND REST AREAS
These are desirable elements on heavily traveled road
and on those carrying recreation traffic. The design and
location of these areas depend much on the character
and volume of traffic, type of highway and adjacent land
use.
4.6 LIGHTING
Lighting of rural highways is seldom justified except on
certain critical sections such as intersections, long
bridges and areas where roadside interference is a
factor. Consideration of the location of lighting poles
should be made a factor in design of the above road
sections.
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48
4.7 UTILITIES
Proper coordination with utility companies
should be made during the preliminary
design stages so that necessary
adjustments in plans, with regard to
placement or relocation of utilities, could
be effected.
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49
5.0 CROSS SECTION

ELEMENTS
5.1 PAVEMENT
Relative to this topic, pavement is

defined as the running surface of the
road excluding the shoulders.
Pavements may be classified as single
lane, two-lane or multilane. A traffic
lane is the portion of pavement allotted
to a single line of vehicles.
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50
5.1.1 Width of 2-Lane Highways
The type of traffic generally governs in the

determination of pavement width. Typical
pavement width of 6.10 m. is generally adopted,
with pavement width of 6.70 m. considered
desirable. For roads with significant truck traffic,
pavement width of 7.30m. should be considered.
Pavement width in excess of 7.30 m. is not
recommended since drivers will attempt to travel
3 vehicles abreast on a wide pavement.
5.1.2 Surfacing
Pavement surfacing is normally a function of the

traffic volume. Greater volume of traffic requires a
better type of pavement than less trafficke3d
roads. Refer to the minimum design standards
(Annex 1.4.2) for the recommended type of
pavement surfacing.
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51
5.1.3 Cross Slope

Range in Rate of Cross
Slope (m/m)
Surface Type
11/16/16
High: AC, PCCP
0.01 to 0.02
Intermediate: AC, DBST
0.015 to 0.03
Low: Earth, Gravel
0.02 to 0.04
52
5.2 SHOULDER
Shoulder is the width of road from the edge

of pavement to the intersection of the
shoulder and side slope planes. Minimum
shoulder width should be 1.0 m. with up to
2.5 m. recommended on high trafficked
roads. Shoulder should consist of materials
wherein surface water can drain over it or
through it (water should not penetrate the
underlying layers through the shoulders).
Shoulders should also be stable enough to
resist occasional passing of traffic (especially
on curves) and loads due to stalled vehicles.
Desirably, the color and texture of shoulder
surface should contrast the pavement (helps
the driver in defining the travelled way).
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53
5.3 SIDEWALK
There is little or no provision of sidewalks on

rural highways but this should be considered
when the road passes through points of
community development. When sidewalks are to
be provided, minimum width should be 1.5 m. and
this should be set back at least 1.0 m from the
curb. When setback cannot be sufficiently
provided, the sidewalk width should be increased.
5.4 GUARDRAILS
Corrugated metal beam guardrails spaced at 3.81

m. fixed to concrete posts are normally provided
at points of hazards, particularly at high fills
(>5.0 m.) as a guide in defining the roadway.
These are designed to resist impact by deflecting
the vehicle so that it continues to move at a
reduced velocity along the guardrail.
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54
5.5 MEDIANS
Medians act as separator between
opposing traffic. These are normally
provided on roads designed for
higher speeds. Minimum median
width should be 1.22 m. Medians with
width of 4.5 m. could be constructed
without curbs.
11/16/16
55

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What are the different classifications of roads?

What are the different classifications of roads?

What are design criteria/standards and what is their purpose?

What are design criteria/standards and what is their purpose?

DESIGN OF ROADS

1.0 DESIGN STANDARDS

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

1.3 PURPOSE AND DEPARTURE FROM

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Design policies and standards generally represent

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

1.4 SOURCES OF STANDARDS AND OTHER

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

2.0 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

The designer should always bear in mind

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN

The volume of traffic, type of traffic and the required

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

The geometric parameters that contribute

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Two of the most common types

3.1.1 Stopping or Non-Passing Sight

D1, the distance during perception and

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.1.2 Passing Sight Distance (see Exhibit 3-4 for

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.1.3 Sight Distance Controls

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.1.4 Measuring Sight Distances

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Steps in measuring horizontal sight distance:

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Steps in measuring vertical sight distance:

1. Construct a transparent strip in the appropriate scale (same as

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Two types of curves commonly used:

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.2.2 Circular with Transition

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

The principal advantages of using

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

The general objection voiced against the use of transition

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.2.3 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

In the DPWH Design Guidelines, it was

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

The required superelevation for various design

Engr. Edwin G. Azurin

3.3.2 Superelevation Run-off

Superelevation run-off is the length of