Basic Concepts

of
Manufacturing

Definition

It is the science that studies the processes of forming and

fabrication of mechanical components with adequate precision
dimensional machinery, tools and other equipment's necessary
to perform the physical work of such processes, automatization,
planning and verification.

Design
Specifications

The manufacturing engineering is a function

that involves the technical staff, and is related
to planning manufacturing processes for
economical production of a high quality
products.

Manufacturing
physical
product

The manufacturing field for

engineering
It includes:

Planning process

Problems solving and continuous improvement

Design of capacity of manufacturing

Traditional planning process

The planning process takes just engineers who know the

particular manufacturing processes used in the factory.

And they just are able to read engineering drawings based on

their knowledge, experience and skills.

Details and required decisions

Team selection

Tools, matrices, cast, support and measurer

Cutting tools and cutting conditions for machining operations

Methods

Labor standards

Estimation of production costs

Materials estimation

Factory distribution and facility design

Planning process for parts

The necessary processes for manufacturing a specific part are

determined by material which the part is manufactured.

The product designer select the correct material.

Once the correct material is selected, the possible selection

processes are delimited considerable.

The materials

Metal

Ceramics

Polymers

Compose materials

Common sequence of
manufacturing process
1.

Raw material

2.

Basic processes

3.

Secondary processes

4.

Improving processes of the properties

5.

Finished operations

Basic processes
Materials casting,
Forging and metal
sheets laminated.

This are the

processes which
give the final
geometry to the
piece.
Secondary
process

First
processes

First geometry
refinement

Correlation

Transformation

Finished geometry

Process reduction

Materials casting,
Forging and metal
sheets laminated.

Finished geometry

First
process

Finished pieces
Finished
geometry

Electrodepositio
n and paint
operations for
improving
properties

Finishing
operations

Heat
treatments

Covering in
the work area

Historical development of
manufacturing systems

Eli Whitney

1880

His machine Cotton gin

Milling machine

Thanks the Civil War in United

States the factories created new
processes of manufacturing

FRED W. TAYLOR

He realized too many experiments and analyzed

manufacturing processes

He published his results about materials carve and he

provided a scientific base for made it

Conventional manufacturing
processes
1.

Forming processes without removal of material

2.

By casting

3.

By deformation

4.

Forming processes with material removal

5.

By Abrasion

6.

For other procedures

7.

Forming processes of polymers and derivatives

8.

Plastics

9.

Composite materials

Weldability
In engineering, is the process where
two or more metal pieces are joined by
a
heat
application,
pressure
application, or a combination of both,
with or without the aportation of
another metal, called filler metal,
which fusion temperature is lower than
the pieces that has to be welded.

The main part of welding process can be divided in two

categories:

Pressure welding

Theweldingtogetheroftwoobjectsbyholdingthemtogetherunder
pressure.

Fusion welding

Fusion weldingis a generic term forweldingprocesses that rely

uponmeltingto join materials of similar compositions and melting
points.

Regarding the use of filler metal, it distinguishes between

ordinary welding and autogenous welding.

Autogenous welding

Its done without adding any material.

Ordinary welding

Its done by adding a filler metal which melts and adds to the
main parts.

Ordinary Welding

Method used to join metals with metal alloys that melt in

relatively low temperatures.

Soft welding

Lead

Tin

bismuth

Hard Welding

Silver

Cooper

Zinc

During the first half of the century XX, the welding replaced
the screwed and the riveting in the construction of many
buildings, bridges, and ships.

The best welding type for join two metal pieces, depends in

The physical properties of the materials,

The use to which its intended the piece

The available installation for welding.

The welding process by original pressure is the forge

welding, metals are heated in an oven and are joined with a
hit of a hammer.

Steps to join tow pieces of metal

alloy
1.

Clean the surface mechanically and covering it with resin or

borax

2.

The surfaces are heated with a soldering iron

3.

When the metal reach the melting temperature of the filler

metal, its applied.

4.

Finally hardens when it cools

This type of welding has been practiced for more than 2

000 years by phoenicians and chinese people

In the 1st century A.D. Plinio speaks of soldering with tin as

usual procedure of artisans in the manufacture of
ornaments with precious metals

Fusion welding
There are many welding process, usually without applying pressure,
and temperatures above ordinary weldings.

Gas welding

Arc welding

Aluminothermy

Gas welding

Uses the heat of combustion of a gas, which is applied to the

surfaces of the piece, and the filler metal rod.

This system doesnt need to connect to power.

Arc Welding

Needs electric current.

This current is used to create an electric arc between one or

more electrodes aplied in the piece.

Generating enough heat to mealt the metal.

Its faster than other methods because the high heat

concentration.

Produce less distortion in the union.

In some cases, fuse electrodes are used, because are filler

metals,shaped coated rods.

In other cases, is used and refractory tungsten electrode, and the

filler metal is added separately

The most important arc welding

procedure:

Coated electrode

Gas protection

Flux powder

Arc welding with coated electrode

The metal electrode, is coated with flux and conected to the

current source. The metal is conected to another bourne of the
current source. With the electrode the metal forms an electric
arc. The arc heat melts the two parts.

Arc welding with gas protection

Uses the gas to protect the atmosphere air fusion .

The noble gases are used as protection , they can be argon and
helium; the active gases, usually are mixtures with carbon
dioxide.

In both cases the electrode, a couted rod with flux, melts to fill
the joint.

Another type of gas protection is the TIG welding, that uses a

noble gas to protect the metal oxygen, like MIG, but differs in
that the electrode is not fuse.

It uses a refractory tungsten rod, and the filler metal can be

supplied approaching a couted rod to the electrode.

Arc welding with flux powder

This process uses a fluxing bath powder, which the pieces to be

welded are immersed.

They can be used some bare wire electrodes and the remaining
powder is used again.

Aluminothermy welding
The heat required for this type of welding is obtained from the
chemical reaction of a mixture of iron oxide with very fine particles
of aluminum. The resulting liquid metal constitutes the filler metal.
It is used to weld breaks and cuts in heavy pieces of iron and steel,
and is the method used to weld the rails or train rails.

Pressure welding
Group all the weldings process in
which pressure is applied without
added metals to bonding.
The method most commonly used
is the resistance welding; others
are forge welding, the friction
welding and other newer methods
such as ultrasonic welding.

Resistance welding
It
is
performed
by
heating
experiencing metals due to their
flow resistance of an electric
current (Joule effect).
Electrodes are applied to the ends
of the pieces, it placed together by
pressure and passed by them a
strong electric current for an
instant. The junction of the two
pieces, because have the higher
resistance to offer, it is heated and
melted metals.

Hardenability
Process of low temperature in the heat treatment of the material,
especially steel, with which the desired balance between hardness
and toughness of the final product obtained.
Hardened steel pieces are heated to an elevated temperature, but
below the melting point of the material.
Then they cooled rapidly in oil or water to achieve a harder material
with less internal stress, but more fragile.

To reduce the fragility, the material passes by an annealing, which

increases toughness and hardness decreases.
To get the right balance between hardness and toughness, they
must control reheating temperature and duration of this.
Hardenability depends on the ease of steel to avoid the pearlite
transformation (ferrite and cementite) or of the bar so that it can
produced martensite.

Annealing
Heat treatment process by which the glass and certain metals and
alloys become less brittle and more resistant to breakage.
Annealing minimizes internal defects in the atomic structure of the
material and eliminates possible internal tensions caused in the
earlier stages of processing.

Ferrous metals and glass are annealed heating them to high

temperature and cooling them slowly; however, the best way to
anneal the copper and silver is to heat and cool immediately
immersing them in water. When the volume of metal or glass is big,
usually is cooled in the heating furnace; sheets usually are annealed
in a furnace of continuous process.

The material to be annealed moves on a mobile board through a

chamber of great length with a gradient (gradual difference) of
temperature carefully fixed, from an initial value just below the
point softened to room temperature at the terminal end.

Annealing time, especially in the case of glass, varies greatly

depending on the thickness of each piece; window glass, for
example, requires several hours; the plate glass takes several days,
and glass mirrors for reflecting telescopes, several months.

Hardness
A solid material property related to the resistance to deformation or
abrasion being surface. It is also described as penetration
resistance of the material.
There are several tests to determine the hardness value:

Test Brinell (BHN)

In a press a test tube is placed with the flat upper surface and the
surface is pressed with a steel ball with a load of 500 kg (soft
materials) or 3000 Kg (hard materials). The diameter of the printed
mark determines the hardness value.

Vickers test (VHN)

A diamond pyramid is pressed
against a test specimen, under
lighter loads than the Brinell test.
The printing diagonal determines
the hardness number.

Rockwell test (Ra, Rb, etc.):

A diamond cone (RC assay) is pressed in a test tube. The tread
depth determines the hardness number. For softer materials Rb
test, which replaces the diamond cone by a pellet and the filler used
is reduced it.

Machinability
Property that determines the machinability of a material. It is
related to the processes in which there is material removal as:

Shearing: process by which cut an iron or a metal piece cold by

scissors or shears cut.

Turning: operation which involves working a piece on a lathe,

machine-tool in which it is secured and rotates the work piece, to
polish or dress it. Several types of turning like a simple or straight
and conical drilled.

Drilling: operation consisting mainly of the opening, enlargement,

cutting and finishing holes in one piece.

Isotropy
A material or part is isotropic when presented exactly the same
properties in all directions. Otherwise it is anisotropic, that is,
having different properties for each direction.

Flowability
Property that is related to the fluidity that acquires a material once
the melt temperature reached.
Casting involves three processes:
First a model of wood, plastic or metal is constructed with the
shape of the finished object, later a hollow mold is made
surrounding the model with sand and removing it later; and then
molten metal is poured into the mold.

Its the property of a material that determines its malleability.

Formability

Liquid State

Solid State

Granular State

Type of foundry

Materials plastic
deformation
processes

Pressure and
Temperature

Mass
conservation

Mass
Reduction

Joints

Its a vital property at the time of making

a decision in which manufacturing
process the organization will use.

Formability

Economic production

A products cost depends on the inversion and outgoings that are generated
in the consumption on raw material, workforce, machinery and others
outgoings.

Independe
nt costs

Dependen
t Costs

Economic production

It can be stated that the objective of an economic production its based on

generating a product under certain benefit, meaning this, that products cost
should be acceptable and competitive.

Also, it must be a demand on the product, or more to mean, this demand

must be created by the organization.

Economic production

Since the appearance of machinery it has evolved into more complex and
functional machines that combined with the effective human operation or
with very simplified control systems had made an important change in
manufacturing:

V
o
l
u
m
e

Wor
kfor
ce
cost

Better
Life
Quality

Fundamental criteria that

determines an economic
production.
A functional project as simple as possible and with an
1.

appropriate esthetic.

2.

Materials selection that represents the best concomitance

between the physics properties, exterior aspect, cost and
feasibility to be worked and assembled.

3.

The manufacturing process must be selected in order to get the

exact manufacture volume with a unitary cost as low as
possible.

Advanced manufacturing
methods.
Concurrent

engineering:

It is based on the idea of planning the manufacturing process since

the beginning of the design.

Design for manufacture and assembling is the most important

aspect on concurrent engineering because this has the biggest
impact in production costs and development time.

Rapid prototyping

It refers to the capacity for designing and producing

high quality products in the minimal time.

Well talk about three techniques where they depend

on design data generated on a graphic computerized
system. Notice that because of this, the precision in
which traces are made is quite big.

First technique: Stereolithography

Is the process of manufacturing a solid

plastic part from a data file. Generated
from a solid model made in a
computerized graphic system.

Its made by layers, each one is

about .005 to .0020 inches. A process
by which light causes chains of
molecules
to
link
together,
formingpolymers.

Second technique: Selective laser

sintering
Technique that uses alaseras the power source tosinter powdered material

(typicallymetal), aiming the laserautomaticallyat points in space defined by

a3D model, binding the material together to create a solid structure.

Third technique: Fused deposition modeling

It is one of the techniques used for3D printing.

FDM works on an "additive" principle by laying down material in

layers; a plastic filament or metal wire is unwound from a coil
and supplies material to produce a part.