HYDROLOGY - BASIC CONCEPTS

Hydrology
Hydrology is the science of the waters of the earth and its
atmosphere. It deals with occurrence, circulation,
distribution and movements of these waters over the
globe and their interaction with the physical and
biological environments.
Engineering Hydrology
Engineering hydrology is the branch of hydrology which
deals with estimation and analysis of water resources and
related hydrologic quantities. It also investigates
hydrologic problems such as floods and droughts, and
develops strategies to mitigate them.

NEED FOR THE HYDROLOGIC

STUDIES
The need of the hydrologic studies arises mainly from
the following hydrologic problems:
a. Uncertainty of precipitation and its seasonal
occurrence
b. Seasonal flow of rivers
c. Population growth and rising standards of living, and
d. Environmental impacts of development projects

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING

Hydrology has an important role in the design and

operation of water resources engineering projects like
irrigation, flood control, water supply schemes,
hydropower projects and navigation. Many important
civil engineering projects have failed because of
improper assessment of hydrologic aspects of the
projects. Hydraulic structures which are part of very
important civil engineering projects and cost billions of
Rupees, may fail due to improper hydrologic design. For
example, a dam may fail due to inadequate spillway
capacity. There may be reservoir operational problems
due to lack of hydrologic data like probable inflows,
evaporation and seepage.

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROLOGY IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

There might be failure of a bridge or a culvert if its

maximum design flood is not estimated properly.
Construction of a dam may cause problem for bridges
upstream and downstream if proper hydrologic studies
regarding floods and erosion downstream are not
estimated and taken into account in design. Groundwater
studies are important for installation of tube wells and
irrigation projects. These are just a few examples which
show the importance of hydrologic studies for civil
engineering projects.

MAJOR ASPECTS OF HYDROLOGY

The main jobs of a hydrologist are collection and analysis
of data, and making predictions out of this analysis.
i. Collection of Data
The hydrologic data comprises:
a. Rainfall Data
b. Snowfall and Snowmelt Data
c. Runoff Data (Catchment Runoff and Stream Flows)
d. Topographic Maps, and
e. Groundwater Data

ii. Analysis of Data

Analysis of hydrologic data includes checking it for

consistency and homogeneity as well as finding its various
statistical parameters.
iii. Prediction
Prediction means finding design values and maximum
possible floods and droughts. Various approaches for
prediction of hydrologic values are:
a. Statistical Approach
b. Physical Approach
c. Deterministic Approach

SCIENCES INVOLVED

Hydrology is a very broad subject and it needs support

from allied sciences such as Physics, Mathematics,
Geology, Geography, Meteorology, Forestry, Agriculture
and Hydraulics.
Major Hydrologic Projects:
Engineering Hydrology provides hydrologic data
essentially required for a variety of projects, such as:
a. Hydraulic Structures like Dams, Bridges, Head-works,
Spillways and Culverts etc.
b. Hydroelectric Power Generation
c. Flood Control Projects
d. Irrigation Projects
e. Environmental Pollution Control, and
f. Planning and Execution of Water Resources
Development Projects

HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Journey of water from the ocean to atmosphere and back to
the earth and ultimately to the ocean through the processes
of evaporation, precipitation, percolation, runoff and return
to the ocean is called hydrologic cycle. The importance of
hydrologic cycle in hydrology is such that Hydrology is
also briefly defined as the science of hydrologic cycle.
Figure 1.1 shows a schematic flow chart of the hydrologic
cycle. Though the actual hydrologic cycle is quite complex,
this figure just broadly depicts the sequence of major events
of the cycle. The hydrologic cycle can be broadly divided
into two phases - land phase, and atmospheric phase.
Before discussing the two phases of hydrologic cycle, some
of the related terms are defined below:

Infiltration:
Precipitation falling on the ground is, to some extent,
absorbed by the land. This absorption of precipitation
water by land from the surface of earth is called
infiltration.
Interception :
A part of the precipitation is obstructed by vegetation
and temporarily remains there. This process is called
interception. Later the intercepted water is either
evaporated or infiltrated.

Depression Storage
A part of precipitation is stored in depressions on the
catchment area. This is called depression storage.
Detention Storage
When the precipitation occurs for a longer duration and at a
rate greater than the rate of infiltration some water is
collected on the surface of the earth up to a certain depth.
On attaining a certain depth, the action of gravity makes
this water flow. Before it starts flowing, the water stored on
the surface of earth is called detention storage.
Runoff
After the detention storage is built up, as explained above,
the water will start flowing over the ground and is called
runoff.

Inter Flow
The part of infiltrated water which moves laterally
through the upper soil layers above the groundwater
level and soon joins the stream is called inter flow.
Total Runoff
A part of infiltrated water moves in the form of inter
flow which soon joins the stream, the remaining portion
of infiltrated water percolates to deeper layers of the
ground and is stored as groundwater. This groundwater
sometimes also joins the stream flow through springs
and seepage process. The stream flow is then called the
total runoff i. e. it is sum of all the components of
precipitation water. Direct runoff plus the losses gives
total runoff.

The runoff can be expressed in depth units for a certain area

or it can be expressed in volume units. It can also be
expressed in discharge units for a specified time.
Note that x cm of runoff means that water, having x cm
depth, is spread uniformly over the catchment. Runoff in
volume units can be obtained by multiplying the depth with
the area of the catchment.
Now we come back to explain the hydrologic cycle.
Atmospheric Phase of Hydrologic Cycle
Atmospheric phase of hydrologic cycle starts with the
formation of clouds after vaporization from water bodies and
ends after the occurrence of precipitation.

Land Phase of Hydrologic Cycle

After occurrence of precipitation, water comes in contact
with the earth surface and hydrologic cycle enters the
land phase. Part of precipitation is infiltrated and a part
of it, depending upon circumstances, is intercepted by
trees and vegetation. If there are depressions in the
surface upon which precipitation falls, a part of
precipitation will be stored in the depressions in the form
of depression storage. All of these parts are liable to
vaporization. Rainwater stands on the surface of earth
where it falls, after various losses, depending upon the
rate of rainfall. When the depth of standing water
becomes sufficient it starts flowing over the ground
surface in the form of surface runoff.

Land Phase of Hydrologic Cycle

During the travel of surface runoff towards streams, again
a part of water is infiltrated and a part of it is evaporated. A
part of infiltrated water moves laterally through the upper
soil layers above the groundwater level, in the form of
interflow which soon joins the stream flow. The remaining
portion of infiltrated water percolates to deeper layers of
the ground and is stored as groundwater. Sometimes this
ground water joins the stream flow through spring or
seepage process. The stream flow is then called the total
runoff. The total runoff from the streams goes back to the
oceans subjected to vaporization throughout its travel. The
depression storage is either evaporated or infiltrated into
the ground and similar is the case of interception. The
ground water also may go to oceans after a long time.


HYDROLOGIC EQUATION
The hydrologic equation states that for a given time interval, difference
of inflow to and outflow from a system is equal to change of storage of
the system. In its differential form it states that rate of volume inflow
minus the rate of volume outflow is equal to the rate of change of
storage. Mathematically
I - O = S / t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.1
Where,
I = Rate of volume inflow (volume/time), measured in m3/sec,
ft3/sec, etc.
O = Rate of volume outflow (volume/time) measured in m3/sec,
ft3/sec, etc.
S / t = Rate of change of storage (S represents storage and t
represents Time, hence this is also Volume / time)
The above equation is a storage equation which only approximates
some hydrologic processes.

COMPONENTS OF INFLOW
There are two components of inflow, viz.
precipitation over the catchment and reservoir, and
surface or groundwater flow from other catchment areas.
Components of Outflow
Three components of outflow are:
surface evaporation
groundwater seepage, and
direct runoff i.e. water taken for irrigation or to spill ways
for producing power
If we fix the time and take the volume units, then the
hydrologic equation can be written as,
Total volume inflow The volume outflow = Total
change in volume of the system

This is hydrologic or storage equation. It is used in many

different ways. If, for example, assuming inflow changes
linearly from I1 to I2 in time t, the outflow changes
linearly from O1 to O2 and storage changes from S1
to S2 in this time, the equation can be written as:

( I1 + I2 ) / 2 - ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = ( S2 S1 ) / t- - ---1.2
If we fix time t and talk about total inflow in certain
time t, total outflow and total change in storage in that
time, the hydrologic equation can be written as:
Volume inflow - Volume outflow = Total change in
storage.

If further, we fix the area of the system (for

example, we talk of a catchment) and assume
inflow as precipitation p, the outflow as the
losses L and runoff R then the equation can be
written as:
P L R = D- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.3
Where D is the depression storage.
This concept is further applied to estimate the
water budget of a catchment.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Flow of River Chenab at Marala Barrage varied
linearly from 34 cumec (m3/sec) to 283 cumec in 10hours during a flood. The flow variation at Khanki
Barrage, downstream of Marala was observed to be
from 28 to 255 cumec during the above mentioned
time. Assuming no lateral flow in or out of the reach,
find out the rate of change of storage of the river
reach between Marala and Khanki. What is total
change in storage of the reach in this period?

SOLUTION
I1 = 34 cumec

I2 = 283 cumec

O1 = 28 cumec O2 = 255 cumec

I = ( I1 + I2 ) / 2 = ( 34 + 283 ) / 2 = 158.5 cumec
O = ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = ( 28 + 255 ) = 141.5 cumec
S / t = ?
According to hydrologic equation
( I1 + I2 ) /2 - ( O1 + O2 ) / 2 = S / t
158.5 - 141.5 = S / t = 17 cumec
t = 10 hours = 10 x 60 x 60 = 3.6 x 10 4 sec
Total change in storage = S = (S / t) x t
= 17 x 36,000 = 6.12 x 10 5 m3


EXAMPLE 1.2

Water at a constant rate of 370 cumec was observed

to be entering into Tarbela Reservoir in a certain
season. If outflow from the reservoir including
infiltration and evaporation losses is 280 cumec, find
out the change in storage of reservoir for 10 such
days. Also convert your answer into Hectare-Meter.

SOLUTION
I = 370 cumec
O = 280 cumec
S = ?
According to hydrologic equation,
I - O = S / t
370 280 = S / t =90 cumec
t =10 x 24 = 240 hours = 240 x 60 x 60 = 864x10
sec
Total change in storage = S = (S / t) x t
= 90 x 864x10 = 777.6x104 m3
= 777.6x104 / 104 = 777.6 Hectare-m

WATER BUDGET IN A CATCHMENT

The water budget of a catchment is similar to budget of a

country. The water budget in a catchment can be given
by hydrologic equation. If we take the inflow as the
precipitation P on the ground surface , outflow as
interception losses Li, surface runoff R and
evaporation Le and the change in storage due to
Infiltration F and Depression storage D, the
hydrologic equation is expressed as:
P - ( Li + R + L e ) = D + F

or

R = P - ( L i + Le + D + F )

R = P- The Losses.
R=PL

If all the quantities on right-hand-side of the above

equation could be measured, the surface runoff of a
given catchment as result of a known precipitation could
easily be determined. But unfortunately, it is very
difficult to get these values directly. The hydrologists
have therefore evolved a number of direct and indirect
techniques to find the rainfall - runoff relationship
described by the above equation.

EXAMPLE 1.3

A precipitation measuring 125 mm occurred over a

catchment. If the infiltration, interception, depression
storage and other losses are 50 mm, find direct runoff
and total runoff.

SOLUTION

Precipitation P= 125 mm
Losses L
= 50 mm
Direct runoff (DRO) = P L = 125 50 = 75 mm
Total runoff
= DRO + L = 75+50 = 125 mm

EXAMPLE 1.4

A part of catchment area of Hub River measuring 78 km

received 100 mm of rainfall in 3 hours due to a storm. A
drainage stream joins this part of catchment to the Hub
River. The stream was dry before rainfall and there was
flow in the stream for a period of 2.5 days with an
average discharge of 10 cumec. After the storm runoff,
the stream again became dry. Find the losses, direct
runoff and total runoff in cumec and Hectare-meter.

SOLUTION
According to hydrologic equation,
Area of Catchment A = 78 km2 =78x106 m2
P = 100 mm =0.1 m
Q = 10 m3/sec
t = 2.5 days = 2.5 x 24 x 60 x 60 sec
Total Runoff = P x A = ( 0.1 ) x 78 x 10 6 = 7.8 x106m3
= 7.8 x 106 / 104 = 780 Hectare-m
DRO
= 10 x 2.5 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 2.16x106 m3 = 216 Hectare-m
Losses L = P - R = 7.8 x 106 - 2.16 x 106 = 5.64 x 106m3
= 564 Hectare-m

EXAMPLE 1.5

Assume that Mangla Reservoir has surface area of 39

sq. km in the beginning of a certain month and the
water depth is 76.20 m for this whole surface of the
lake. Further assume that sides of reservoir are
nearly vertical. The reservoir received an average
inflow of 226.50 cumec as a direct runoff in the same
month, and direct precipitation of 125 mm. The
outflow from the reservoir was 170 cumec and
evaporation and seepage losses were estimated to be
113 mm during the month. Find out depth of
reservoir at the end of that month and total increase
or decrease in the storage.

SOLUTION
The hydrologic equation will be applied to solve this
water budget related problem.
t = 1 month = 30 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 2.592x106 sec.
Total inflow as direct runoff = I x t = 226.50 x
2.592x106 m3
= 587.088x106 m
Addition from precipitation = precipitation x surface
area of reservoir
= (125/10)x39x106 = 4.875x106 m3
Total outflow = O x t = 170 x 2.592x106 = 440.64x106
m3
Losses = ( Evaporation + Seepage ) x Surface area of
reservoir = (113/10) x 39 x 106 = 4.407 x 106 m3

Now the total change in volume of storage

= total volume of inflow + total volume of precipitation
( total volume
of outflow + total volume of losses )
=587.088 x 106 + 4.875 x 106 ( 440.64 x 106 + 4.407 x 106 )
= 146.916 x 106 m3
Change in depth of reservoir = change in storage / surface area
= 146.916 x 106 / 39 x 106 = 3.77 m
Depth at the end of month = depth in the beginning + change
in depth
= 76.20 + 3.77 = 79.97 m

EXERCISE
During July, 1996 monthly inflow to Tarbela
Reservoir was 20 billion cubic meters and outflow
was 18.70 billion cubic meters. Find the rate of
change of storage and change in storage during the
period.
At Basha Reservoir the storage volume is 11,410
million cubic meters at elevation of 1,180 m. If inflow
is 11,500 cubic meters per second. Find the time to fill
the reservoir up to mentioned elevation. Assume that
losses are negligible.

EXERCISE

Mangla Lake had a water surface level of 650 m

above a datum at the beginning of a certain month. In
that month the lake received an average inflow of 250
cumecs. There was an outflow of 150 cumecs. In the
same month, the lake received a rainfall of 150 mm
and the evaporation from the lake surface was 5 cm.
Using hydrologic equation, estimate the water surface
elevation of the lake at the end of the month. Assume
the lake surface area as 450 hectares and that there
was no contribution to or from the groundwater
storage.

EXERCISE

A catchment area of 100 Sq. Km. in Gilgit received a

rainfall of 12 cm from a 3-hours storm. At the outlet
of the catchment, a natural stream had a steady flow
of 10 cumecs before the storm and experienced a
runoff lasting for 20 hours with an average discharge
value of 90 cumecs. The stream was again to its
original steady state with a flow of 10 cumecs.
Estimate the losses and ratio of runoff to
precipitation.