Digital communication

(Signals and spectra)

Kweku Arthur, PhD

Introduction
Why digital?
i. Nonideal frequency transfer function
ii. Unwanted electrical noise
Effects
degradation

Contd

Advantages of digital
communication
I. More reliable
II. more flexible implementation
III. Multiplexing
IV. interference and jamming

Disadvantages of digital
communication
I. signal-processing intensive
II. allocation a significant share of resources to
the task of synchronization
III. nongraceful degradation.

Basic Signal Processing

Functions
I. Formatting and source coding
II. Baseband signalling
III. Bandpass signalling
IV. Equalization
V. Channel coding
VI. Multiplexing and multiple access
VII.Spreading
VIII.Encryption
IX. Synchronization

Contd

Basic digital communication transformations

Basic Digital Communication

definitions

Information source
This is the device producing information to be
communicated by means of the DCS.
Information sources can be analog or discrete.
The output of an analog source can have any value in a
continuous range of amplitudes, whereas the output of a
discrete information source takes its value from a finite set.
Analog information sources can be transformed into digital
sources through the use of sampling and quantization.
Sampling and quantization techniques called formatting and
source coding.

Textual message
This is a sequence of characters.
For digital transmission, the message will be a
sequence of digits or symbols from a finite
symbol set or alphabet.

Character
A character is a member of an alphabet or set of
symbol.
Characters may be mapped into a sequence of binary
digits.
Examples of standardized codes used for character
encoding, include the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII), Extended Binary
Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC),
Hollerith, Baudot, Murray, and Morse.

Signals and spectra

Binary digit (bit).
This is the fundamental information unit for all
digital systems.
Bit stream.
This is a sequence of binary digits (ones and zeros).
A bit stream is often termed a baseband signal,
which implies that its spectral content extends from
(or near) dc up to some finite value, usually less than
a few megahertz.

Symbol (digital message)

A symbol is a group of k bits considered as a
unit.
This unit is referred to as a message symbol (i
= 1,,m) from a finite symbol set or
alphabet.
The fact that the symbol set transmitted by the
DCS is finite is a primary difference between a
DCS and an analog system

Digital waveform
This is a voltage or current waveform (a pulse for
baseband transmission, or a sinusoid for bandpass
transmission) that represents a digital symbol.
The waveform characteristics (amplitude, width,
and position for pulses or amplitude, frequency,
and phase for sinusoids) allow its identification as
one of the symbols in the finite symbol alphabet.

Data rate
This quantity in bits per second (bits/s) is
given by R = k/T = (1/T) M bits/s, where k bits
identify a symbol from an M = 2k symbol
alphabet, and T is the k-bit symbol duration.

Digital versus Analog

Performance Criteria
Analog systems draw their waveforms from a
continuum, which therefore forms an infinite set
that is a receiver must deal with an infinite number of
possible wave shapes.
The figure of merit for the performance of analog
communication systems is a fidelity criterion such as
signal-to-noise ratio, percent distortion, or expected
mean-square error between the transmitted and
received waveforms.

Contd
By contrast, a digital communication system
transmits signals that represent digits.
These digits form a finite set or alphabet, and
the set is known a priori to the receiver.
A figure of merit for digital communication
systems is the probability of error (PE).

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Deterministic Signals
A signal can be classified as
deterministic, meaning that
there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any
time

Random Signals
A signal can be
classified
as
random,
meaning
that there is some
degree
of
uncertainty before
the signal actually
occurs

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Periodic Signals
A signal x(t) is called
periodic in time if there
exists a constant T0 > 0 such
that
x(t)=x(t + T0)
for - < t <

Nonperiodic Signals
A signal for which
there is no value of
T0 that satisfies the
equation below is
called a nonperiodic
signal.
x(t)=x(t + T0)
for - < t <

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Analog Signals
An analog signal x(t) is a
continuous function of time;
that is, x(t) is uniquely
defined for all t

Discrete Signals
a discrete signal
x(kT) is one that
exists only at
discrete times; it is
characterized by a
sequence of
numbers defined for
each time, kT,
where k is an
integer and T is a
fixed time interval.

Energy and Power Signals

An electrical signal can be represented as a
voltage v(t) or a current i(t) with instantaneous
power p(t) across a resistor R defined by
v 2 (t )
p (t )
R

The instantaneous power is given by

p (t ) x 2 (t )

where x(t) is either a voltage or a current signal.

Contd
The energy dissipated during the time interval (-T/2,
T/2) by a real signal with instantaneous power
expressed by
T /2

ExT

x 2 (t )dt

T / 2

And the average power dissipated by the signal

during the interval is
1 T
1
P
Ex
T
T
T
x

T /2

T / 2

x 2 (t ) dt

Examples

Classify the following signals as energy signals or power

signals. Find the normalized energy or normalized power of
each.

Try
2.
Determine the energy spectral density of a square
pulse x(t) = rect (t/T). where rect (t/T) equals 1, for ,
and equals 0, elsewhere. Calculate the normalized
energy Ex in the pulse.
3. Find an expression for the average normalized
power in a periodic signal in terms of its complex
Fourier series coefficients.
4. Using time averaging, find the average normalized
power in the waveform x(t) = 10 cos 10t + 20 cos 20t.

The Unit Impulse Function

A useful function in communication theory is the
unit impulse or Dirac delta function .
The impulse function is an abstractionan
infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse
width, and unity weight (area under the pulse),
concentrated at the point where its argument is zero.
The unit impulse is characterized by the following
relationships:

Signals and spectra

(t ) dt 1

(t ) 0
(t )

for t 0
is bounded at t = 0

x(t ) (t t0 ) dt x (t0 )

SPECTRAL DENSITY
The spectral density of a signal characterizes the
distribution of the signal's energy or power in the
frequency domain.
This concept is particularly important when
considering filtering in communication systems
We need to be able to evaluate the signal and noise at
the filter output. The energy spectral density (ESD) or
the power spectral density (PSD) is used in the
evaluation.

Energy Spectral Density

The total energy of a real-valued energy signal
x(t), defined over the interval, (- , ).
Using Parseval's theorem , we can relate the
energy of such a signal expressed in the time
domain to the energy expressed in the
frequency domain.

Contd
The energy spectral density is symmetrical in
frequency about the origin, and thus the total
energy of the signal x(t) can be expressed as:

Ex 2 x ( f )df
0

Power Spectral Density

If x(t) is a periodic signal with period T0, it is
classified as a power signal.
Therefore, the PSD of a periodic signal is a
discrete function of frequency.
The average normalized power of a realvalued signal as:

Px

G ( f )df 2 G ( f )df
x

Autocorrelation of an Energy
Signal

Rx ( )

x (t ) x (t ) dt

for

Properties of autocorrelation
function
Rx ( ) Rx (0)
Rx ( )

Rx (0)

x( f )

x (t ) dt

Autocorrelation of a Periodic
(Power) Signal

Rx ( )

lim

1
T

T /2

T / 2

x (t ) x(t )dt

Properties of autocorrelation
function

Rx ( ) Rx (0)

Rx ( )

1
Rx (0)
T0

Gx ( f )
T /2

T / 2

x 2 (t )dt

Noise in Communication
Systems
The term noise refers to unwanted electrical
signals that are always present in electrical
systems.
The presence of noise superimposed on a
signal tends to obscure or mask the signal
It limits the receiver's ability to make correct
symbol decisions, and thereby limits the rate
of information transmission.

Sources of noise in the DCS

man-made noise
I. spark-plug ignition noise,
II. switching transients,
III. and other radiating
electromagnetic signals.

Natural noise
I. atmosphere,
II. the sun,
III. and other galactic
sources.

Elimination of noise
Noise can be eliminated through
1) filtering,
2) shielding,
3) the choice of modulation,
4) and the selection of an optimum receiver site.
)There is one natural source of noise, called thermal
or Johnson noise that cannot be eliminated.

Johnsons Noise
We can describe thermal noise as zero-mean
Gaussian random process. A Gaussian process n(t) is
a random function whose value n at any arbitrary
time (is statistically characterized by the Gaussian
probability density function.

1
1 n
P ( n)
exp
2
2

Contd

Normalised (=1) Gaussian probability density function

Please Any Questions

HAVE A
NICE DAY