PROGRAMMING IN C#

Chapter : 1
Introducing C#

What is C#?

Is a compute-programming language developed by

Microsoft Corporation, USA.

Is fully object-oriented language.

Is first Component-oriented language.

Suitable for developing Web-based applications

Designed for developing robust, reliable & durable

components to handle real-world applications.

Highlights of C#

Derived from C/C++ family.

It simplifies & modernizes C++.

It is only component oriented language available today.

It is a language designed for the .NET Framework.

It is a concise, lean & modern language.

It combines the best features of many commonly used

languages: the productivity of VB, the power of C++, & the
elegance of Java.

It is intrinsically object-oriented & web-enabled.

It has a lean & consistent syntax.

Is simple, robust & productive.

Major parts of .NET Framework are actually coded in C#.

Why C# ?????

The primary motivation while developing any language is the concern that it able to
handle the increasing complexity of programs that are robust, durable &
maintainable.
The history of major languages developed is as follows:

Ken Thompson
B
1970

Martin Richards
BPCL
1967

Dennis Ritchie

1972

1983

C++

Bjarne Stroustrup

1987

ANSI C

ANSI Committee

1991

Oak

James Gostling

1995

Java

Sun MicroSystems

1996

ANSI C++

2000

C#

ANSI Committe
Microsoft

Cont.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.

C & C++ languages suffer from a

number of shortcomings in
meeting World Wide Web
requirements & standards.
Some are as follows:
The high complexity of language
They are not truly object
oriented
They have poor type safety
They are not suitable for
working with new web
technologies.
They do not support versioning
Their low productivity
They are weak in consistency
Their poor compatibility with
the existing systems

VB, a language promoted by

Microsoft for overcoming these
problems, is not truly objectoriented and becomes
increasingly difficult to use when
systems become large.
Java which is truly objectoriented has not retained some
powerful C++ features such as
operator overloading.
Java also lacks inter-operability
with code developed in other
languages.
Microsoft therefore decided to
design a new language.
The result is C#, a simple &
modern language that directly
addresses the needs of
component-based software
development.

Evolution of C#

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

The Internet is the mainstream

for many business organization
today.
There were a number of
limitations in using the WWW
over the Internet:
We could see only one site at a
time
The site had to be authored to our
hardware environment
The information was basically
read-only.
We could not dynamically
compare similar information
stored on different sites.
The internet is a collection of
many information islands that do
not co-operate with each other.
Microsoft wanted to develop a
software platform which will
overcome these limitations &
make the Web both
programmable and intelligent.

The outcome is a new generation

platform called .NET.
Microsoft introduced C# as a de
facto language of the .NET
platform.
C# has been particularly designed
to build software components
for .NET and it supports key
features of .NET natively.
C# compiler is embedded into
.NET as shown below:

.NET Platform
.NET Framework
C#

Cont

C# is a descendant of C++ which in turn is a

descendant of C as illustrated below:
C
Object
Orentation

C++
Power

Concept

Concept

Component
Java

Orientation
Elegance

C#

VB
Productivity

Characteristics of C# (5 marks)

Simple

Consistent

C# simplifies C++ by eliminating irksome operators such as ->, ::, and pointers.
C# treats integers & Boolean data types as entirely different types.

C# supports an unified type system which eliminates the problem of varying ranges of
integer types.
All types are treated as objects.

Modern

C# is called modern language bcoz it supports:

Automatic garbage collection

Rich intrinsic model for error handling
Decimal data types for financial applications
Modern approach to debugging
Robust security model

Object-Oriented

C# is truly object-oriented. It supports:

Encapsulation
Inheritance
Polymorphism

Cont.

Type-Safe
Type safety promotes robust programs.
C# incorporates number of type-safe measures:
All dynamically allocated objects & arrays are initialized to zero
Use of any uninitialized variables produces an error message by the compiler
Access to arrays are range-checked
C# does not support unsafe casts
C# supports automatic garbage collection
Versionable
Making new versions of software modules work with the existing applications is
known as versioning
C# provides support for versioning with the help of new & override keywords.
Compatible
C# enforces the .NET common language specifications & therefore allows interoperation with other .NET languages
Interoperable

C# provides support for using COM objects, no matter what language was used to
author them.

Flexible

We may declare certain classes & methods as unsafe and then use pointers to
manipulate them.

Applications of C#
C# is a new language developed exclusively to
suit the features of .NET platform.
It can be used for a variety of applications that
are supported by the .NET platform

Console

applications
Windows applications
Developing Windows Controls
Developing ASP .NET Projects
Creating Web Controls
Providing Web Services
Developing .NET component library

How Does C# differs from C++ ?

Changes Introduced
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

C# compiles straight from source code to executable

code, with no object files
In C#, class definition does not use a semicolon at
end
The first character of Main() function is capitalized
C# does not support #include statement
C# does not support multiple code inheritance
Casting in C# is much more safer then C++
C# does not support default arguments
C# permits declaration of variables between goto &
label

How Does C# differs from C++ ?

C++ Features Dropped

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Macros
Multiple Inheritance
Templates
Pointers
Global Variables
Typedef statement
Default Arguments
Forward Declaration of Classes

Enhancements to C++

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Automatic Garbage Collection

Versioning Support
Strict Type-Safety
Properties to access data members
Delegates & Events
Boxing & Unboxing
Web Services

How Does C# differs from Java ?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

C# has more primitive data types

Arrays are declared differently in C#
C# supports struct type & Java does not
Java does not provide for operator overloading
C# provides for better versioning support than Java
C# provides static constructors for initialization
Java does not directly support enumerations
C# uses is operator instead of instanceof operator in
Java
C# checks overflows uses checked statements
There is no labeled break statement in C#. The goto
statement is used to achieve this.
In Java, the switch statement can have only integer
expression, while C# supports either an integer or string
expressions

Chapter : 2
Understanding .NET: The C# Environment

The .NET STRATEGY

.NET is a software framework that includes

everything required for developing software for
web services.
It integrates presentation technologies,
component technologies & data technologies on a
single platform so as to enable users to develop
Internet applications.

The Origins of .NET Technology

The current technology of .NET has gone through three different phases of development:
OLE technology
COM technology
.NET technology
OLE (Object Linking & Embedding) technology
Developed by Microsoft to enable easy inter-process communications.
OLE provides support to achieve following:
To embed documents from one application into another application
To enable one application to manipulate objects located in another application
COM Technology:
Overcomes the problems of maintaining and testing of software.
A program can be divided into number of independent components where each one offers a
particular service.
Each component can be developed & tested independently and then integrated into the
main system.
This technology is known as Component Object Model (COM) and the software built using
COM is referred to as componentware.
Benefits:
Reduces Complexity
Enhances software maintainability
Enables distributed development acrossmultiple organizations

The Origins of .NET Technology (cont)

.NET Technology
Is third generation component model
Provides a new level of inter-operability compared to COM technology
Inter-module communication is achieved using Microsoft Intermedia
Language (MSIL) or simply IL
IL allows for true cross language integration
IL also provides metadata : describes characteristic of data including
datatypes & locations.
.NET also includes host of other languages & tools that enable us to develop
& implement Web-based applications easily.

Phase I Early 1990s OLE Technology

Phase II 1995

Interprocess Communication

COM Technology Intermodule Communication

Phase III Late 1990s .NET Technology Intersite Communication

Fig : Three generations of component model

The .NET Framework

.NET Platform
.NET Building
Block Services

.NET Device
Software

.NET User

.NET Infrastructure

Experience

& Tools

.NET Infrastructure & Tools

Visual Studio
.NET
Windows .NET

.NET Experience
Services
.NET Framework

.NET Framework

The .NET Framework (cont)

The .NET framework is one of the tools provided by the .NET infrastructure
& tools component of the .NET platform.
The .NET framework provides an environment for building, deploying &
running web services & other applications.
It consists of three distinct technologies:

Common Language Runtime

Framework Base Classes
User & program interfaces(ASP .NET)

.NET Framework
ASP .NET

Windows Forms

(Web Services)

(User Interface)

Framework Base Classes

Common Language Runtime

The Common Language Runtime (CLR)

Is heart & soul of the .NET framework
Is responsible for loading & running C#
programs.
Supports cross-language interoperability.
Services provided:

Loading

& execution of programs

Verification of type-safety
Providing metadata
Memory management
Enforcement of security
Interoperability with other systems
Managing exceptions & errors
Debugging

Components of CLR (cont)

Common Language Runtime
Common Type System
Intermedia Language (IL)
Execution Support Functions
Security
Garbage Collection
Class Loader
Memory Layout

Framework Base Classes

Allows to implement applications quickly

The functionality of the base framework classes resides in
the namespace called System
Provides:

Input/Output operations
String handling
Managing arrays, lists,maps,etc
Accessing files & file systems
Accessing the registry
Security
Windowing
Database management
Drawing
Managing errors & exceptions
Connecting to Internet

User & Program Interfaces

The .NET framework provides the following tools

for managing user & application interfaces:
Windows

forms
Web forms
Console applications
Web Services

These tools enables users to develop user-friendly

desktop-based as well as web-based applications.

Benefits of the .NET Approach

The .NET technology provides a number of benefits to

developers & users.
Some of them are:

Simpler & faster systems development

Enhanced built-in functionality
Many different ways to communicate with the outside world
Integration of different languages into one platform
Easy execution
Wide range of scalability
Interoperability with existing applications
Fewer bugs
Potentially better performance

Chapter : 3
Overview of C#

Introduction

C# can be used to develop two categories of

programs:
Executable

application programs &

Component libraries

Executable programs are written to carryout

certain tasks & require Main method in one of
the classes.
Component libraries do not require Main
declaration because they are not standalone
application programs.
They

are written for use by other applications.

A Simple C# Program
class SampleOne
{
public static void Main()
{
System.Console.WriteLine(C# is sharper than C++);
}
}

Executing the program

Save the above file with SampleOne.cs name
Compile as : csc SampleOne.cs
C# compiler compiles your code and create an executable file by
name

SampleOne.exe

For executing the program, simply type in the name of the

executable file at the command prompt.

NAMESPACES

System.Console.WriteLine();
Here System is a namespace in which the Console class is
located.
This class can be accessed using the dot operator.
C# supports using directive that can be used to import the
namespace System into the program.

using System;
class SampleTwo
{
public static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine(Hello World!!!);
}
}

Adding Comments

Enhances readability & understanding of the

code.
Programs should have information such as
implementation details, change history and tasks
performed.
Types of comments:
Single-line

comments (//)
Multiline comments (/* .. .. */)

Main Returning a Value

Main() can also return a value if it is declared as int instead of

void.
When the return type is int, we must include a return statement at
the end of the method.

using System;
class SampleThree
{
public static int Main()
{
Console.WriteLine(Hello World!!!);
return 0;
}
}

The value returned serves as the programs termination status

code.
It allows communication of success or failure to the execution
environment.

Using Aliases for NAMESPACE Classes

using A=System.Console;
class SampleFour
{
public static void Main()
{
A.WriteLine(Hello World!!!);
}
}

Passing String Objects to WriteLine Method

using System;
class SampleFive
{
public static void Main()
{
string name=PentaSoft Technologies;
Console.WriteLine(name);
}
}

Command Line Arguments

Can be used to take an input from a user.

Command line arguments are parameters supplied to the
Main method at the time of invoking it for execution

using System;
class SampleSix
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
string name=Welcome to;
Console.Write(name);
Console.Write( +args[0]);
Console.WriteLine( +args[1]);
}
}

MAIN with a Class

class Demo //class definition
{
public void display()
{
System.Console.WriteLine(In Demo Class);
}
}
class SampleSeven
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
Demo d=new Demo(); //creating d object
d.display(); //callinf display() function
}
}

Providing Interactive Input

using System;
class SampleEight
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
Console.Write(Enter Your Name);
string name=Console.ReadLine();
Console.WriteLine(Hello +name);
}
}

Using Mathematical Functions

using System;
class SampleNine
{
public static void Main(string[] args)
{
double x=5.0;
double y;
y=Math.Sqrt(x);
Console.WriteLine(y = +y);
}
}

Multiple Main Methods

In C# it is possible to have Main

method in different classes.
In such situations there would be
multiple entry points in the
program.
There should be only one.
This problem can be resolved by
specifying which Main is to be
used to the compiler at the time
of compilation:

csc filename.cs/main:classname
Example :

multimain.cs/main:Class A

multimain.cs/main:Class B

OR

//multimain.cs
using System;
class A
{
public static void Main()
{
Console.Write(Class A);
}
}
class B
{
public static void Main()
{
Console.Write(Class B);
}
}

Compile Time Errors

A program is never totally error-free

Types of errors:

Syntax Errors
Logic Errors

Syntax errors will be caught by the

compiler
Logical errors should be eliminated by
testing the program logic carefully.
When the compiler cannot interpret
what we are attempting to convey
through our code the result is syntax
error.
Example:

using Systom;
class SampleTen
{
public static void main()
{
Console.Write(Hello);
}
}

1.
2.
3.
4.

Errors.cs(2.7): error cs0234: The type

or namespace name Systom does not
exists in the class or namespace
The error message contains:
Name of the file being
compiled(Errors.cs)
Line number & column position of the
error(2.7)
Error code as defined by the compiler
(cs0234)
Short description of error

Program Structure

The documentation section

consists of a set of comments
giving the name of the
program, the author, date &
other details.
The using directive section
includes all those namespaces
that contain classes required
by the application
A interface is similar to a
class but contains only
abstract classes.Used in
multiple inheritance
A C# program may contain
multiple class definitions.
Every C# program requires a
Main method as its starting
point, the class containing the
Main is the essential part of
program.

Documentation Section

Optional

Using Directive Section

Optional

Interfaces Section

Optional

Classes Section

Optional

Main Method Section

Essential

Chapter : 4
Literals, Variables & Data Types

Literals

Literals are the value constants assigned to

variables in a program.
C# supports seven types of literals.
Integral

Literals : Decimal & Hexadecimal Integers

Real Literals
Boolean Literals :True / False
Single Character Literals
String Literals
Backslash Character Literals : \a, \b, \n, \t, \\, \

Variables

Is an identifier that denotes a storage location used to store

data value.
May take different values at different times during program
execution.

Name should be meaningful.

May consist of alphabets, digits & the underscore.

Conditions:

Not begin with a digit

Uppercase & lowercase are distinct
It should not be a keyword
White space is not allowed
Name can be of any length

Data Types

Every variable in c# is associated with a data type

Specifies the size and type of values that can be stored

Types in C#

Values types are stored on stack

Value types
Reference types
Pointers
When a value of a variable is assigned to another variable,
the value is actually typed.

Reference types are stored on heap

When a value of a variable is assigned to another reference

variable, only the reference is copied.

Taxonomy C# data types

C# Data Types
Value Types

Predefined
Types

Pointers

User-defined
Types

Reference Types

Predefined
Types

User-defined
Types

Integers

Enumerations

Objects

Classes

Real Numbers

Structures

Strings

Arrays

Booleans

Delegates

Characters

Interfaces

Declarations of Variables

Variables are names of storage locations.

Declaration does three things

Tells the compiler what the variable name is.

2. Specifies what type of data the variable will hold.
3. The place of declaration decides the scopeof variable.
1.

Syntax:

type variable1, variable2,. variableN

Default Values

A variable is either explicitly assigned a value or automatically

assigned a default value.
Following categories of variables are automatically initialized to
their default values.

Static variables
Instance variables
Array elements
Type

Default Value

All integer types

char type

\x000

float type

0.0f

double type

0.0d

decimal type

0.0m

bool type

false

enum type

All reference type

null

Constant Variables

Variables whose values do not change during the

program execution are known as constants.
Eg.

const

int Rows=10
const int Cols=10

Advantages
Programs

are easier to read & understand

Programs are easier to modify
Accidental errors are minimized

Scope of Variables

It is region of code within which the variable can be accessed.

Depends on type of the variable and its place of declaration.
Consider following Eg
class ABC
{
static int m;
int n;
void fun(int x, ref int y, out int z, int[] a)
{
int j=10;
..
..
}
}

Static variables

The value parameter x will exists till the end of fun() method
The reference & output parameters (y & z) do not create a new storage locations.

Declared at the class level

Known as fields or field variables.
The scope of these variables begins at the place of their declaration & ends when the
Main method terminates.

Their scope is same as the underlying variables that are passed as arguments.

Array element a[0] come into existence when an array instance is created, & cease to
exist when there are no references to that array instance.
Variables declared inside a method are called local variables.

Their scope is until the end of block inside which they are declared.

Boxing & Unboxing

In OOP, methods are invoked with the help of objects.

Value types such as int & long are not objects, we cannot
use them to call methods.
C# achieve this through a technique called as boxing.
Boxing means the conversion of a value type on the stack to
a object type on the heap.
The conversion from an object type back to a value type is
known as unboxing.

Boxing

Any type, value or reference can be assigned to an object without an explicit

conversion.
When a compiler finds a value type where it needs a reference type, it creates an
object box into which it places the value of the value type.
Example:
int m=100;
object om=m; //creates a box to hold m
This code creates a temporary reference type box for the object on heap.
This can also be done with:
int m=100;
object om=(object)m; //C-style casting
Here the variable m & om exist but the value of om resides on the heap. The values
are independent of each other.
int m=100;
object om=m;
m=20;
Console.WriteLine(m); //m=20
Console.WriteLine(om); //om=10

Unboxing

It is the process of converting the object type back to the

value type.
We can only unbox a variable that has previously been
boxed.
Unboxing is an explicit operation using C-style casting.
int m=100;
object om=m; //box m
int n=(int)om; //unbox om back to an int

When unboxing a value, we have to ensure that the value

type is large enough to hold the value of the object.

Chapter : 5
Operators & Expressions

Type of Operators
Arithmetic

operators
Relational operators
Logical operators
Assignment operators
Increment & decrement operators
Conditional operators
Bitwise operators
Special operators

Arithmetic Operators
Operator

Symbol

Action

Addition

Adds two
operands

x+y

Subtraction

Subtracts the 2nd

operand with 1st
operand

xy

Multiplication

Multiplies two
operands

x*y

Division

Divides two
operand

x/y

Modulus

Gives the
remainder when
the operands are
divided.

Example

x%y

Exercise

Write a program to demonstrate use of all

Arithmetic operators.

Relational Operators.

Relational operators are used to compare

expressions.
An expression containing a relational operator
evaluate to either true(1) or false (0).

Relational Operators.
Syntax: (ae-1 relational operator ae-2)
Operator

Symbol

Equal

==

Greater than

>

Less Than

<

Greater than or equal to

>=

Less than or equal to

<=

Not Equal to

!=

Exercise

Write a program to demonstrate use of relational

operators.

Logical operators

Logical operators helps a user to combine two or more relational

expressions into a single expression.

Operator

Symbol

AND

&&

OR

||

NOT

Bitwise logical AND

&

Bitwise logical Or

Bitwise logical exclusive Or

The Assignment Operator:

Used to assign the value of an expression to a variable.

The assignment operator is the equal sign (=).
Syntax : variable = expression;
For e.g. a=b;

C# also has a set of short assignment operator.

Syntax: v op=exp

Example:

Here v is a variable, exp is an expression & op is an C# binary operator.

The operator op= is known as shorthand assignment operator.
x+ = y+1;

is same as

x=x+(y+1);

Advantages of shorthand assignment operators:

Easier to read.
The statement is more concise
Results in more efficient code

C# Unary mathematical operators:Operator

Symbol

Action

Examples

Increment

++

Increments the
operand by one

++x, x++

Decrement

--

Decrements the
operand by one

--x, x--

Prefix and Postfix modes

When used in prefix mode, the increment and

decrement operators modify their operand before
its used.
When used in postfix mode, the increment and
decrement operators modify their operand after
its used.

Exercise:

Write a program to demonstrate prefix and

postfix modes.

Conditional Operator

Is C#s only ternary operator.

Takes three operators.

Syntax : exp1 ? exp2 :exp3;

Here if exp1 evaluates to true, then value of exp2
is assigned else of exp3.
Eg.

a=10;
b=15;
x = (a > b) ? a :b;

Operator Precedence and Parentheses

Some rules are needed about the order in which operations are
performed.
This order, called operator precedence, is strictly spelled out in C#

Operators

Relative Precedence

*/%

+-

Type Conversion

Used to convert data of one type to another type.

Example:

byte b1=10;
byte b2=20;
byte b3=b1+b2;
Results in an error message because, when we add two byte
values, the compiler automatically converts them into int
types and the result is an integer.
Hence code should be:
int b3=b1+b2; //no error

Ways of Type Conversion

Implicit Conversions
Explicit Conversions

Type Conversions
Implicit
Conversions

Explicit
Conversions

Arithmetic
Operations

Casting
Operations

Mathematical Functions

Present in Math class of System Namespace.

Static Members: E and PI
Mathematical Methods in Math class:

Method

Description

Sin()

Asin()

Sine of an angle in
radians
Cosine of an angle in
radians
Tanget of an angle in
radians
Inverse of Sine

Acos()

Inverse of Cosine

Atan()

Inverse of Tangent

Sinh()

Hyperbolic sine

Cos()
Tan()

Cosh()

Hyperbolic cosine

Tanh()

Hyperbolic tangent

Sqrt()

Square Root

Pow()
Exp()

Number raised to a
given power
Exponential

Log()

Natural logarithm

Abs()

Absolute value

Min()

Lower of two numbers

Max()

Higher of two numbers

Exercise:

Write a program to find square root of number 25

Write a program to find minimum between two
numbers 25 & 35 using Math class.

Chapter : 6
Decision Making & Branching

The if Statement

Is a powerful decision making statement

Used to control the flow of execution of
statements
General form:
if (boolean-expression)
{
statement-block;
}
statement-x;

Flowchart of simple if control

Entry

boolean
expression
?
True
Statement
block
Statement-X
Next statement

False

Jumping

Exercise

Write a program that stores weight & height of

10 person in array & count number of person
with height greater than 170 & weight more than
55.

The IF.. ELSE Statement

Is an extension of if statement.
General form:
if (boolean-expression)
{
true-block statement (s);
}
else
{
false-block statement (s);
}
statement-x;

Flowchart of ifelse control

Entry

True

boolean
expression
?

False

False-Block
Statement

True-Block
Statement
Statement-X
Next statement

Exercise

Write a program that counts total of even & odd

numbers stored in an array number.

Nesting of If.Else Statements

Used when a series of decisions are involved.

General form:
if (test condition1)
{
if (test condition2)
{
statement-1;
}
else
{
statement-2;
}
}
else
{
statement-3;
}
statement-x;

Flowchart of nested if.else statements

Entry

False

Test
condition1
?

False
Statement-3

Statement-2

Statement-X
Next statement

True

Test
condition2
?

True
Statement-1

Exercise

Write a program that finds largest among 3

numbers using nested if..else statement.

The Else If Ladder

Used when multipath decisions are involved.

It is an chain of ifs in which the statement associated with each else is an
if.
General form:
if (condition 1)
statement-1;
else if (condition 2)
statement-2;
else if (condition 3)
statement-3;
else if (condition n)
statement-n;
else
default-statement;
statement-x;

Exercise

Write a program that finds the grade of a student

using else if ladder.

The Switch Statement

If statements increases complexity of a

program dramatically as the
alternatives increases.
The program becomes difficult to read
& follow.
C# offers an alternative with the help of
switch statement
General Form:
switch(expression)
{
case value-1:
block-1
break;
case value-2:
block-2
break;
---------------------------------------------------------default:
default-block
break;
}
statement-x;

Here, the expression must be an integer

type or char or string type
Value-1, value-2 are constants or
constant expressions & are known as
case labels.
Block-1, block-2 are statement lists
and may be zero or more statements.

Example
using System;
class CityGuide
{
public static void main()
{

Console.WriteLine(Select your choice);

Console.WriteLine(London);
Console.WriteLine(Bombay);
Console.WriteLine(Paris);
Console.WriteLine(Type your choice);
String name = Console.ReadLine ( );
switch (name)
{
case Bombay:
Console.WriteLine(Bombay : Guide 5) ;
beak;
case London:
Console.WriteLine(london : Guide 10) ;
beak;
case Paris:
Console.WriteLine(Paris : Guide 15) ;
beak;
default:
Console.WriteLine(Invalid choise) ;
break;
}

Fallthrough in Switch Statement

In the absence of the break

statement in a case block, if the
control moves to the next block
without any problem, it is known
as fallthrough.
Fallthrough is permitted in C, C+
+ & Java.
C# does not permit automatic
fallthrough, if the case block
contains some code.
However, it is allowed if the case
block is empty.
If we want two consecutive case
blocks to be executed
continuously, we have to force the
process using the goto statement.

Example

switch(m)
{
case 1:
x=y;
goto case2;
case 2:
x=y+m;
goto default;
default:
x=y-m;
break;
}

Chapter : 7
Decision Making & Looping

The While Statement

The process of repeatedly

executing a block of statements is
known as looping.

Entry based loop

Is an entry-controlled loop
statement.
The test condition is evaluated
and if the condition is true, then
the body of the loop is executed.
Syntax:
initialization;
while(test condition)
{
Body of the Loop
}

Test False
cond
True
Body of the
loop

Example
class DowhileTest
{
public static void Main ( )
{
int two,count,y;
two = 2;
count=1;
System.Console.WriteLine("Multiplication Table \n");
while(count<=10)
{
y = two * count ;
System.Console.WriteLine("2 * " + count + " = " + y) ;
count = count + 1;
}
}
}

The Do Statement

On some occasions it might be

necessary to execute the body of
the loop before test is performed

Exit based loop

This can be handled using do

statement.
Is an exit-controlled loop
statement.
The body of the loop is executed
at least once.
Syntax:
initialization;
do
{
Body of the Loop
}while(test condition);

Body of the
loop

Test
cond

False

True

Example
class DowhileTest
{
public static void Main ( )
{
int two,count,y;
two = 2;
count=1;
System.Console.WriteLine("Multiplication Table \n");
do
{
y = two * count ;
System.Console.WriteLine("2 * " + count + " = " + y) ;
count = count + 1;
}while ( count <= 10 ) ;
}
}

Exercise

Program using do..while to print all the odd

numbers till 20

The For Statement

Is an entry-controlled loop
Syntax:
for(initialization;testcondition;increment)
{
Body of the loop..
}
All the three actions, namely initialization,
testing & incrementing, are placed in the for
statement itself.

Exercise

Program using for loop to print multiplication

table from 2 to 5

The FOREACH Statement

Enables to iterate elements in an array.

General form:
foreach(type variable in expression)
{
Body of the loop
}
The type & variable declares the iteration variable.
During execution, iteration variable represents the array
element for which iteration is currently being performed.
in is a keyword.

Example
using System;
class ForeachTest
{
public static void Main()
{
int[] arryInt={11,22,33,44};
foreach(int m in arryInt)
{
Console.Write(" " + m);
}
Console.WriteLine();
}
}

Jumps in Loops

C# permits a jump from one statement to the end or

beginning of a loop as well as jump out of a loop.
Jumping Out of a loop
An early exit from a loop can be accomplished by using the
break & goto statements.
Using break statement the loop is immediately exited and
the program continues with the statement immediately
following the loop.
Skipping a Part of a Loop
The continue statement causes the loop to continue with
the next iteration after skipping any statements in the
between.

Exiting a loop with break statement

while(.)

do
{

{
.

if (condition)
break;
..

Exit..
from
} loop

Exit from
loop

..
if (condition)
break;
..
..
}while (.)
.

..
for (.)
{

if (error)
break;
..
..
Exit from
} loop
..

Exit from
loop

for (.)
{

for (..)
{
..
if (condition)
break;

Bypassing & Continuing in Loops

while (test condition)

do

if (..)
continue;
.
.
}

if (..)
continue;
.
..
} while (test condition);

for (initialization; test condition; increment)

{

if (.)
continue;

..

Labelled Jumps

Used to jump a set of nested loops or to continue a loop that

is outside a current one.
Example
Public static void Main(String a[])
{
if(a.Length==0)
goto end;
Console.WriteLine(a.Lenght);
end; //Label name
Console.WriteLine(end);
}

Chapter : 8
Methods in C#

Declaring Methods

Methods are declared inside the body of a class

General form:
modifiers type methodname(formal-parameter-list)
{
method---body
}
Method declaration has five parts:

Name of the method

Type of value the method returns
List of parameters
Body of the method
Method modifiers

Example:
int Product(int x,int y)
{
int m=x*y;
return(m);
}

List of Method Modifiers

Modifier

Description

new

The method hides an inherited method with the same signature.

public

The method can be access from anywhere, including outside the class.

protected

The method can be access from within the class to which it belongs, or a type
derived from that class.

internal

The method can be accessed from within the same program.

private

The method can only be accessed inside the class to which it belongs.

static

The method does not operate on a specific instance of the class

virtual

The method can be overridden by a derived class.

abstract

A virtual method which defines the signature of the method, but doesnt
provide an implementation.

override

The method overrides an inherited virtual or abstract method.

sealed

The method overrides an inherited virtual method, but cannot be overridden

by any class which inherit from this class. Must be used in conjunction with
override.
The method is implemented externally, in a different language.

extern

Invoking Methods

Once method is defined, they must be activated

for operations.
Process of activating a method is known as
invoking or calling
General form:
objectname.methodname(actual-parameter-list);

Example
using System;
class Method // class containing the method
{
// Define the Cube method
public int Cube(int x)
{
return(x*x*x);
}
}
// Client class to invoke the cube method
class MethodTest
{
public static void Main( )
{
// Creat object for invoking cube
Method M = new Method( );
// invoke the cube method
int y = M.Cube(5); //Method call

// Write the result

Console.WriteLine(y);
}

Program for calling a static method

using System;
class StaticMethod
{
public static void Main()
{
double y = Square (2.5F); //Method Call
}

Console.WriteLine( y );

static double Square ( float x )

{
return ( x * x );
}
}

Nesting of Methods

Methods can be invoked without

using an object & dot operator.
A method can be called using only
its name by another method of
the same class.
This is known as nesting of
methods.

using System;
class Nesting
{
public void Largest ( int m, int n )
{
int large = Max ( m , n );
Console.WriteLine( large );
}
int Max ( int a, int b )
{
int x= ( a > b ) ? a : b ;
return ( x );
}
}
class NestTesting
{
public static void Main( )
{
Nesting next = new Nesting ( ) ;
next.Largest ( 100, 200 ) ;
}
}

Method Parameters

For managing the process of passing values &

getting back the results, C# employs four kinds of
parameters.
Value

Parameters
Reference Parameters
Output Parameters
Parameter Arrays

Pass By Value

By default, method
parameters are passed by
value.
When a method is invoked,
the value of actual
parameters are assigned to
the corresponding formal
parameters.
Any changes to formal
parameters does not affect the
actual parameters.
There are 2 copies of
variables when passed by
value.

using System;
class PassByValue
{
static void change (int m)
{
m = m+10;
}
public static void Main( )
{
int x = 100;
change (x);
Console.WriteLine("x =" +
x);
}
}

Pass By Reference

We can force the value parameters to

be passed by reference.
Use ref keyword.
This does not create a new storage
location.
It represents the same storage
location as the actual parameter.
When a formal parameter is declared
as ref, the corresponding actual
argument in the method invocation
must be declared as ref.
Used when we want to change the
values of variables in the calling
method.

using System;
class PassByRef
{
static void Swap ( ref int x, ref int y )
{
int temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}
public static void Main( )
{
int m = 100;
int n = 200;
Console.WriteLine("Before Swapping;");
Console.WriteLine("m = " + m);
Console.WriteLine("n = " + n);
Swap (ref m , ref n );
Console.WriteLine("After Swapping;");
Console.WriteLine("m = " + m);
Console.WriteLine("n = " + n);
}
}

The Output Parameters

Used to pass results back to the calling method.

Declare the parameters with an out keyword.

It does not create a new storage location.

When a formal parameter is declared as out, the corresponding actual argument in the method
invocation must also be declared as out.

using System;
class Output
{
static void Square ( int x, out int y )
{
y = x * x;
}
public static void Main( )
{
int m; //need not be initialized
Square ( 10, out m );
Console.WriteLine("m = " + m);
}
}

Variable Argument Lists

We can define methods that can

handle variable number of
arguments using parameter
arrays.
Parameter arrays are declared
using the keyword params
The parameter arrays should be a
one-dimensional arrays.

using System;
class Params
{
static void Parray (params int [ ]
arr)
{
Console.Write("array elements
are:");
foreach ( int i in arr)
Console.Write(" " + i);
Console.WriteLine( );
}
public static void Main( )
{
int [ ] x = { 11, 22, 33 };
Parray ( x) ;
//call 1
Parray ( ) ;
//call 2
Parray ( 100, 200 ) ;//call 3
}
}

Method Overloading

Enables us to create more than one

method with the same name, but with
the different parameter lists &
different definitions.
Required when methods are required
to perform similar tasks but using
different input parameters.
Example

using System;
class Overloading
{
public static void Main()
{
Console.WriteLine(add(2,3));
Console.WriteLine(add(2.6F,3.1F));

Console.WriteLine(add(312L,22L,21));
}
static int add(int a,int b)
{
return(a+b);
}
static float add(float a,float b)
{
return(a+b);
}
static long add(long a,long b,int c)
{
return(a+b+c);
}

Chapter : 9
Handling Arrays

Introduction

Array is a group of contiguous or related data

items that share a common name.
A particular value is indicated by writing a
number called index number or subscript in
brackets after the array name.
Example : marks[10]
The complete set of values is referred to as an
array.
The individual values are called elements.

One-Dimensional Arrays

A list of items can be given one variable name using only one subscript & such
a variable is called a one-dimensional array.
Declaration of Arrays:

Creation of Arrays:

Syntax: type[] arrayname;

Example:
int[] counter;
float[] marks;
int[] x,y;
Syntax: arrayname = new type[size];
Example:
counter=new int[5];
marks=new float[4];

Combination:
int[] counter=new int[5];
Initialization of Arrays:

Syntax: arrayname[subscript]=value;
Example:
marks[0]=60;
marks[1]=70;
int[] counter={10,20,30,40,50};
int len=c.Length;
//Returns Length of Array

Exercise

Write a program to sort an array of 5 number

taking from user as input.

Two-Dimensional Arrays

Allows to store table of values.

Example: v[4,5];

Each dimension of the array is indexed from zero to its

maximum size minus one.
First index specifies the row & second index specifies the
column within that row.
Declaration: int[,] myArray;
Creation: myArray=new int[3,4];
Combination: int[,] myArray=new int[3,4];
Initialization: int[,] n={{0,0,0},
{1,1,1}};

Example
using System;
class MulTable
{
static int ROWS = 5;
static int COLUMNS = 10;
public static void Main( )
{
int[,] product =new int[ROWS,COLUMNS];
int i,j;
for (i=1; i<ROWS; i++)
{
for (j=1; j<COLUMNS; j++)
{
product[i, j] = i*j;
Console.Write(" " +product[i , j]);
}
Console.WriteLine(" ");
}
}
}

Variable-Size Arrays

C# treats multidimensional arrays as arrays of arrays.

It is possible to declare two-dimensional array as follows:

int[][] x=new int[3][]; //three rows array

x[0]=new int[2]; //first row has two elements
x[1]=new int[4]; //second row has four elements
x[2]=new int[3]; //third row has three elements

These statements create a two-dimensional array having

different length for each row.

Also called as jagged arrays.

Initializing: x[1][1]=10;

System.Array Class

In C# every array we create is automatically derived from

the System.Array class.
Methods/properties present in this class:

Method/Property

Purpose

Clear()

Sets a range of array elements to empty values

CopyTo()

Copies elements from source array to destination

GetLength()

array
Gives the number of elements in a given

GetValue()

dimension of the array

Gets the value for a given index in the array

Length

Gets the lengths of an array

SetValue()

Sets the value for a given index in the array

Reverse()

Reverses the contents of a one-dimensional array

Sort()

Sorts the elements in a one-dimensional array.

Example
using System;
class Sort
{
public static void Main( )
{
int[] x ={10,5,2,11,7};
Console.WriteLine("Before Sort");
foreach(int i in x)
Console.WriteLine(" " + i);
Console.WriteLine(" ");
Array.Sort(x);

Console.WriteLine("After Sort");
foreach(int i in x)
Console.WriteLine(" " + i);
Console.WriteLine(" ");

ArrayList Class
Present in System.Collections namespace.
Can store a dynamically sized array of objects.
Has an ability to grow dynamically.
Example:

ArrayList

city=new ArrayList(30);
Creates city with a capacity to store 30 objects.
Default is 16.

Adding Elements:

Removing Elements:
Modifying Capacity:

city.Add(Delhi);
city.Add(Mumbai);
city.RemoveAt(1);
city.Capacity=20;

Example
using System;
using System.Collections;
class Sort
{
public static void Main( )
{
ArrayList city=new ArrayList();
city.Add("Delhi");
city.Add("Mumbai");
city.Add("Madras");
city.Add("Kerela");
Console.WriteLine("Capacity=" + city.Capacity);
for(int i=0;i<city.Count;i++)
Console.WriteLine(" " + city[i]);
Console.WriteLine(" ");
city.Sort();

Console.WriteLine("After Sort");
for(int i=0;i<city.Count;i++)
Console.WriteLine(" " + city[i]);

ArrayList Property & Methods

Method/Property

Purpose

Add()

Adds an object to a list

Clear()

Removes all the elements from the list

Contains()

Determines if an element is in the list

CopyTo()

Copies a list to another

Insert()

Inserts an elements into the list

Remove()

Removes the first occurrence of an element

RemoveAt()

Removes the element at the specified place

RemoveRange()

Removes a range of elements

Sort()

Sorts the elements

Capacity

Gets or sets the number of elements in the list

Count

Gets the number of elements currently in the

list.

Chapter : 10
Manipulating Strings

Introduction

Represents a sequence of characters

Example : string s1=abc;
Copying String:
string s2=s1;
string s2=String.Copy(s1);
Concatenating String:
string s3=s1+s2;
string s3=string.Concat(s1,s2);
Reading from keyboard:
string s=Console.ReadLine();
Conversion:
int num=111;
string s=num.ToString();
Verbatim Strings: Starts with @ symbol. Tells the compiler
to use string as verbatim string even if it includes escapes
characters.
String s1=@\EGB\CSharp\String.cs;tim

String Methods

String objects are immutable.

Thus we cannot modify the characters contained
in them.
However we can produce a modified version of a
string using built in operations.
Methods:
Compare(), Concat(), Copy(), Equals(), Insert(),
Join(), Replace(), Split(), ToLower(), ToUpper(),
Trim(), TrimStart(), TrimEnd().

Example
using System;
class demo
{
public static void Main()
{
string s1="Lean";
string s2=s1.Insert(3,"r");
string s3=s2.Insert(5,"er");
string s4="Learner";
string s5=s4.Substring(4);
Console.WriteLine(s2);
Console.WriteLine(s3);
if(s3.Equals(s4))
Console.WriteLine("Two Strings are Equal");
Console.WriteLine("Substring="+s5);
}
}

Mutable Strings

They cab be modified using StringBuilder class.

Can grow dynamically.

Also known as dynamic strings.

Example:
StringBuilder s=new StringBuilder(abc);
Methods:
Append(), Insert(), Remove(), Replace()
Property:
Capacity, Length, [ ]

Example
using System;
using System.Text;
class StringBuild
{
public static void Main()
{
StringBuilder s=new StringBuilder("Object ");
Console.WriteLine("Original="+s);
Console.WriteLine("Length="+s.Length);

s.Append("Language");
Console.WriteLine("Append="+s);
s.Insert(6," Oriented ");
Console.WriteLine("Inserted="+s);

Regular Expressions

Provides a powerful tool for searching & manipulating a

large text.
Used to:

A regular expression (also known as pattern string) is a

string containing two types of characters,

Locate substrings & return them

Modify one or more substrings & return them
Identify substrings that begin with or end with a pattern of
characters
Find all words that begin with a group of characters and
end with some other characters
Literals
Metacharacters

Literals are characters that we wish to search & match in

the text
Metacharacters are special types of characters that give
commands to the regular expression parser.

Cont.

Examples of Regular Expression:

Expression

Meaning

\bm

Any Word Beginning with m

er\b

Any word Ending with er

\bm\S*er\b

Any word beginning with m and ending with er

|,

Any word separated by spaces or comma

System.Text.RegularExpressions supports a number of

classes that can be used for searching, matching &
modifying a text document.

Example
using System;
using System.Text; //for StringBuilder class
using System.Text.RegularExpressions;

//for Regex class

class RegexTest
{
public static void Main ( )
{
string str;
str = "Amar, Akbar, Antony are friends!";
Regex reg = new Regex (" |, ");
StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder( );
int count = 1;
foreach(string sub in reg.Split(str))
{
sb.AppendFormat("{0}: {1}\n", count++, sub);
}
Console.WriteLine(sb);
}
}

Chapter : 11
Structures & Enumerations

Structures

We can create our own value types using structures.

Used to pack data of different types.

Syntax: Define Structure

struct struct-name
{
datamember1;
datamember2;
.
}
The variables inside struct are called as members or fields or elements.
Creating variables of new type:
struct-name variablename;
or
struct-name variablename = new struct-name();
Assigning values to Members:
variablename.datamember1=value;
Struct data members are private by default & hence declare them as public.

Example
using System;
struct Item
{
public string name;
public int code;
public double price;
}
class StructTest
{
public static void Main( )
{
Item fan;
fan.name = "Bajaj";
fan.code = 123;
fan.price = 1576.50;

Console.WriteLine("Fan name: " + fan.name);

Console.WriteLine("Fan code: " + fan.code);
Console.WriteLine("Fan cost: " + fan.price);

Structs with Methods

We can also assign values to data members using constructors.

A constructor is a method which is used to set values of data
members at the time of declaration.
struct Number
{
int number;
public Number (int value)
{
number=value;
}
}

The constructor is invoked as follows:

Number num=new Number(190);

Example
using System;
struct Rectangle
{
int a, b;
public Rectangle ( int x, int y ) //constructor
{
a = x;
b = y;
}
public int Area( ) //a method
{
return ( a * b );
}
public void Display ( )
//another method
{
Console .WriteLine("Area = " + Area( ) );
}
}
class TestRectangle
{
public static void Main ( )
{
Rectangle rect = new Rectangle ( 10, 20 );
rect.Display ( );
//invoking Display ( ) method
}
}

Difference between Classes & Structs (5 Marks)

Category
Data Type
Inheritance

Classes
Reference type & stored on
heap
Support Inheritance

Default Values

Default value of a class

type is null

Field
Initialization
Constructors
Destructors

Permit initialization of
instance fields
Permit declaration of
parameterless constructors
Supported

Assignment

Copies the referennce

Structs
Value Type & stored on
stock
Do Not Support
Inheritance
Default value is the value
produced by zeroing out
the fields of struct
Do Not
Do Not
Not Supported
Copies the value

Enumerations

Is a user defined integer type.

Provides ways for attaching names to numbers.

Enum keyword automatically enumerates list of words by

assigning them values 0,1,2 & so on.
General Form:
enum Shape
{
Circle,
Square,
Triangle
}
Here Circle has value 0, Square has value 1 & Triangle has
value 2.

Example
using System;
class Area
{
public enum Shape {Circle,Square}
public void AreaShape ( int x, Shape shape)
{
double area;
switch (shape)
{
case Shape.Circle:
area = Math.PI * x * x;
Console.WriteLine("Circle Area = "+area);
break;
case Shape.Square:
area = x * x ;
Console.WriteLine("Square Area = " +area);
break;
default:
Console.WriteLine("Invalid Input");
break;
}
}
}

class EnumTest
{
public static void Main( )
{
Area area = new Area ( );
area.AreaShape ( 15, Area.Shape.Circle);
area.AreaShape ( 15, Area.Shape.Square);
area.AreaShape ( 15, (Area.Shape) 1 );
area.AreaShape ( 15, (Area.Shape) 10 );
}
}

Chapter : 12
Classes & Objects

Introduction

C# is a true object oriented language.

We create objects of a have class that have state
& behavior.
Object oriented language employ 3 core
principles:
Encapsulation
Inheritance

Polymorphism.

Member Access Modifiers

OOP provides data hiding

A class may be designed to hide its members from outside
accessibility.
This is achieved using access specifiers.
In C# all members have private access by default.
Modifier

Accessibility Control

private

Member is accessible only from the class containing the

member.

public

Member is accessible from anywhere outside the class as

well. Also accessible in derived class
Member is accessible only to its own class & in derived
class.

protected
internal

protected
internal

Member is available within the assembly or component

that is being created but not to the clients of that
component.
Available in the containing program & in the derived
class

Objects

An object in C# is a block of memory that contains space to

store all the instance variable.
Creating an Object:
Rectangle rect; //declare
rect=new Rectangle(); //instantiate
Or
Rectangle rect=new Rectangle();
We can create n number of objects of a class each having a
different memory storage area.
Accessing Class Members:
objectname.variablename;
objectname.methodname(parameter-list);

Example
using System;
class Rectangle
{
public int length, width;

public void GetData(int x, int y)

{
length = x;
width = y;
}
public int RectArea( )
{
int area = length * width;
return (area);
}

class Rect
{
public static void Main()
{
int area1;
Rectangle rect1=new Rectangle();
rect1.GetData(12,10);
area1=rect1.RectArea();
Console.WriteLine("Area="+area1);
}
}

Constructors

Used to initialize an object when it is

created.
Have the same name as that of the
class.
They do not have a return type.

using System;
class Rectangle
{
public int length, width;

public Rectangle(int x, int y)

{
length = x;
width = y;
}
public int RectArea( )
{
int area = length * width;
return (area);
}

class Rect
{
public static void Main()
{
int area1;
Rectangle rect1=new Rectangle(12,10);
area1=rect1.RectArea();

Console.WriteLine("Area="+area1);
}

Overloaded Constructors

Constructors with same name as of class but

different no. & name of arguments.

Also known as polymorphism.

using System;
class Room
{
public int length, width;
public Room(int x, int y)
{
length = x;
width = y;
}
public Room(int x)
{
length = width=x;
}

public int RArea( )

{
int area = length * width;
return (area);
}

class Area
{
public static void Main()
{
int area1;
Room r1=new Room(12,10);
Room r2=new Room(12);

area1=r1.RArea();
Console.WriteLine("Area="+area1);
area1=r2.RArea();
Console.WriteLine("Area="+area1);

Static Members

They are common to all the

objects.

Restrictions on Static
Methods:

Are accessed without using

a particular object.
Also referred as class
variables & class methods.
A static variable is
common to all instances of
a class.
Even methods can be
declared as static.

Can only call other static

methods.
Can only access static
data.
Cannot refer to this or
base in any way

Example
using System;
class Mathopt
{
public static float mul(float x, float y)
{
return(x*y);
}
public static float divide(float x, float y)
{
return(x/y);
}
}
class MathApp
{
public static void Main()
{
float a=Mathopt.mul(10,20);
float b=Mathopt.divide(20,4);
Console.WriteLine("Multiplication="+a);
Console.WriteLine("Division="+b);
}
}

Static Constructors

Is called before any object of a class is created.

Useful to do any housekeeping work that needs to be done once.

Used to assign initial values to static data members.

Static constructor do not have any parameters.

Example:
class Abc
{
static Abc()
{

}
}
A class can have only one static constructor

Copy Constructors

A copy constructor creates an object by copying

variables from another object.
Example:
public Item(Item item)
{
code=item.code;
price=item.price;
}

Item item2=new Item(item1);

Here item2 is an copy of item1.

Destructors

It is opposite to constructor.

It is a method called when an

object is no longer required.
The name of destructor is
same as that of class name &
is preceded by a tilde(~).

They do not have a return

type.

Example:
class Fun
{
.
~Fun()
{

They do not take arguments.

..

C# manages memory
dynamically & uses a
garbage collector, to execute
all destructors on exit.
This process is called
finalization.

The This Reference

This refers to the object that called the method.

Used to distinguish between local & instance variables that have the same
name.
Example:
class Integers
{
int x;
int y;
public void SetXY(int x, int y)
{
this.x=x;
this.y=y;
}
..
..
}

Constant Members (IMP)

They are the variables whose value cannot be changed

during program execution.
Example:
public const int size=100;
Any attempt to change the value of a constant result in
compilation error.

The const members are implicitly static.

Const members are accessed using class name.

Value must be set when cont is defined.

Read-Only Members (IMP)

Allows us to decide the value

of a constant member at runtime.
Also allows to have different
constant values for different
objects of the class.
The value of the member is
set using constructor &
cannot be modified later.
Can be declared as either
static fields or instance fields.

Example:
class Numbers
{
public readonly int m;
public static readonly int n;
public Numbers(int x)
{
m=x;
}
static Numbers()
{
n=100;
}
}

Properties (IMP)

In C# private data members can only be accessed using

methods of a class.

Such methods are called as an accessor methods.

Drawbacks of using these methods:

We have to code them manually.

User have to remember that they have to use accessor
methods to work with data members.

C# provides properties that has same capabilities as of

accessor methods.
Using property we can access data members as if they are
public.
Also referred to as smart fields.

Example
using System;
class Number
{
private int number;
public int Anumber
{
get
{
return number;
}
set
{

class PropertyTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Number n=new Number();
n.Anumber=20;
int m=n.Anumber;

number=value;

Console.WriteLine("Number="+m);
}

Above class declares a get accessor

method (getter) & a set accessor
method (setter).

Property (cont)

A property can omit either a get clause or a set clause.

A property that has only a getter is called a read-only
property.
A property that has only a setter is called a write-only
property.
Other features:

Properties can also represent dynamic data.

Properties are also inheritable.
Can be used with static keyword.

Indexers (IMP)

Indexers are locations indicators.

Used to access class objects.

An indexer looks like a property

& is written like it but with 2
differences:

Difference between indexers &

properties:

A property can be static

member, whereas an indexer is
always an instance member.

A get accessor of a property

corresponds to a method with
no parameters, whereas for
indexer it corresponds to same
formal parameter list as the
indexer.

A set accessor of a property

corresponds to a method with a
single parameter named value,
whereas for indexer it
corresponds to same formal
parameter list as the
indexer,plus the paramter
named value.

It is an error for an indexer to

declare a local variable with the
same name as an indexer
parameter.

The indexer takes an index

argument & looks like an array.
The indexer is declared using
keyword this.

Also referred to as smart arrays.

Example
using System;
using System.Collections;
class MyClass
{
private string []data = new string[5];
public string this [int index]
{
get
{
return data[index];
}
set
{
data[index] = value;
}
}
}

class MyClient
{
public static void Main()
{
MyClass mc = new MyClass();
mc[0] = UniqueInfotech";
mc[1] = 18";
mc[2] = Janardan Arcade";
mc[3] = Dahanu";
mc[4] = West";
Console.WriteLine("{0},{1},{2},{3},
{4}",mc[0],mc[1],mc[2],mc[3],mc[4]);
}
}

Chapter : 13
Inheritance & Polymorphism
(IMP)

Introductoin

Inheritance is a process of constructing or

designing one class from another.
Forms of Inheritance
Classical

form
Containment form

Feature X
Feature Y
Feature Z
Base Class

Feature X
Feature Y
Feature Z
Feature P

Derived Class

Classical Inheritance

Represents a kind of relationship between two classes.

Example:

Class A

Class B

Here class A is referred to as base class, parent class or

super class.
Class B is referred to as derived class, child class or sub
class.

Also referred to as is-a relationship.

Example:

Dog is-a type of animal

Ford is-a type of car

Different Classical Inheritance Implementation

A

C
Hierarchical
Inheritance

Single Inheritance

Grandparent class

Parent class

Child class

Multilevel
Inheritance

C
Multiple
Inheritance

Containment Inheritance

Also known as containership

inheritance.
Example:
class A
{
.
}
class B
{
.
A a; //a is contained in b
}
B b;
.

Here object a is contained in

object b.
This relationship is referred
to as has-a relationship.
The outer class B which
contains the inner class A is
termed the parent class &
the contained class A is
termed a child class.
Example:

Car has-a radio.

City has-a road.

Defining a Subclass

Syntax:
class subclass-name : baseclass-name
{
variable declaration;
methods declaration;
}

Example: Simple Inheritance

using System;
class Item
{
public void Company()
{
Console.WriteLine("Item Code=XYZ");
}
}
class Fan:Item
{
public void Model()
{
Console.WriteLine("Model=Classic");
}
}

class SimpleInheritance
{
public static void Main()
{
Fan f=new Fan();
f.Company();
f.Model();
}
}

Characteristic of Inheritance

A derived class extends its direct base class. It can add new
members to those it inherits. However, it cannot change or
remove the definition of an inherited member.

A derived class can hide an inherited member.

A derived class can override an inherited member.

An instance of a class contains a copy of all instance fields

declared in the class & its base class.
Constructors and destructors are not inherited.

Visibility Control

Class Visibility :

A class may be declared as:

public: Accessible within & outside the program assembly

internal (default): Accessible only within program assembly
private: Accessible only within the class.

Class Members Visibility :

Can be declared as either:

public
private
protected
internal
protected internal

Keyword

Visibility
Containing

Derived

Containing

Anywhere

Private

Classes
Y

Classes

Program

Outside the program

Protected

Internal

P.Internal

Public

Y
Y

Accessibility Constraints

Constraints on the accessibility of members &

classes when they are used in process of
inheritance:
The

direct base class of a derived class must be at

least as accessible as the derived class itself.

Accessibility

domain of a member is never larger than

that of the class containing it.

The

return type of a method must be as accessible as

the method itself.

Defining Subclass Constructor

using System;
class Room
{
public int length;
public int breadth;
public Room(int x, int y)
{
length=x;
breadth=y;
}
public int Area()
{
return(length*breadth);
}
}
class BedRoom:Room
{
int height;
public BedRoom(int x,int y,int
z):base(x,y)
{
height=z;
}

public int Volume()

{
return(length*breadth*height);
}

}
class InherTest
{
public static void Main()
{
BedRoom room1=new
BedRoom(10,11,12);

int area1=room1.Area();
int vol=room1.Volume();
Console.WriteLine("Area= "+area1);
Console.WriteLine("Volume= "+vol);
}

Multilevel Inheritance

Uses derived class as a super class

A

Grandparent class

Parent class

Child class

Here A servers as base class for B which in turn serves as base

class for C.

The chain ABC is known as inheritance path.

This process may be extended to any number of levels.

Write a program to store & display student information using

multilevel inheritance.

Hierarchical Inheritance
Account

Savings

Fixed-Deposit

Current

Short

Medium

Long

Write a program to demonstrate use of hierarchical inheritance.

Method Overriding (IMP)

In derived class we can create a method with same

signature as in base class.
This concept is called as method overriding.
This method can have same name, same arguments &
same return type as a method in base class.
When the method is called, the method defined in the
subclass is invoked & executed.
The method in base class should be specified as virtual.
The method in base class should be specified with keyword
override.

Example
using System;
class Super
{
public int x;
public Super(int x)
{
this.x=x;
}
public virtual void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Super
x="+x);
}
}
class Sub:Super
{
int y;

public Sub(int x,int y) : base(x)

{
this.y=y;
}
public override void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Super x="+x);
Console.WriteLine("Sub y="+y);
}

class Test
{
public static void Main()
{
Sub s1=new Sub(100,200);
s1.Display();
}
}

Method Hiding (IMP)

With the help of virtual & override

keywords we can hide an method
declared in a base class.
What if the class is provided by
someone else?
Here the base class method cannot be
declared as virtual.
To override such method use modifier
new to tell the compiler the derived
class method hides the base class
method.

Example:
using System;
class Base
{
public void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Base Method");
}
}

class Derived:Base
{
public new void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Derived
Method");
}
}
class HideTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Derived d=new Derived();
d.Display();
}
}

Abstract Classes

At times we can have one base

class & a number of different
derived classes.

The top-most base class simply

acts as a base for others & is not
useful on its own.
We might not want to create an
objects of such classes.
This can be done by making the
class as abstract.

Example:
abstract class Base
{

}
class Dervied:Base
{
..
}
.
.
Base b1; //Error
Derived d1; //Ok
Characteristic:

It cannot be instantiated
directly.
It can have abstract members.
We cannot apply a sealed
modifier to it.

Abstract Methods

Method declaration includes

the modifier abstract.
It is implicitly a virtual
method & does not provide
any implementation.

1.

2.

Its implementation must be

provided in non-abstract
derived classes by overriding
the method.

3.

It can be declared only in

abstract classes.

4.

It cannot take either static or

virtual modifiers.

5.

An abstract definition is
permitted to override a
virtual method.

An abstract method does not

have a method body.
Example:
public abstract void Draw (int
x, int y);

Characteristics:
It cannot have
implementation.

Sealed Classes: Preventing Inheritance

Prevent a class from being further sub classed.

Such classes are called sealed classes.

Example:
sealed class AClass
{
..
}
sealed class BClass:Someclass
{
..
}
Any attempt to inherit these classes will cause an error & compiler will
not allow it.
Standalone utility classes are created as sealed classes.

Sealed Methods

When an instance method declaration includes the sealed modifier, the

method is said to be a sealed method.
A derived class cannot override this method.
A sealed method is used to override an inherited virtual method with the
same signature.
Example:
class A
{
public virtual void Fun()
{

}
}
class B: A
{
public sealed override void Fun()
{

}
}
Now any derived class of B cannot further override the method Fun().

Polymorphism
Means one name .. many forms.
Polymorphism can be achieved in two ways:

Polymorphism

Operation
Polymorphism

Inclusion
Polymorphism

Using
Overloaded
Methods

Using
Virtual
Methods

Operation Polymorphism

Implemented using overloaded methods & operators.

Overloaded methods are selected for invoking by matching
arguments, in terms of number, type & order.
This information is known to compiler at compile time.
Also called as early binding, or static binding or static
linking.
Also known as compile time polymorphism.
Early binding means an object is bound to its method call
at compile time.

Example
using System;

static void Call(Cat c)

{
Console.WriteLine("Cat is
called");
}

class Dog
{
}
class Cat
{
}
class Operation
{
static void Call(Dog d)
{
Console.WriteLine("Dog is
called");
}

public static void Main()

{
Dog dog=new Dog();
Cat cat=new Cat();
Call(dog);
Call(cat);
}

Inclusion Polymorphism

Achieved through use of virtual functions.

Assume class A implements virtual method M. Classes B &
C are derived from A and override method M. When B is
cast to A, a call to method M from A is dispatched to B.
Similarly when C is cast to A, a call to method M from A is
dispatched to C.
Also known as run-time polymorphism.
Since method is linked with a particular class much later
after compilation, this process is also called late binding.
Also known as dynamic binding as the selection of method
is done dynamically at run time.

Example
using System;
class Maruti
{
public virtual void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Maruti Car");
}
}
class SX4:Maruti
{
public override void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("SX4 Car")
}
}

class Swift:Maruti
{
public override void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("Swift Car");
}
}
class Inclusion
{
public static void Main()
{
Maruti m=new Maruti();
m=new SX4();
m.Display();
m=new Swift();
m.Display();
}
}

Chapter : 14
Interfaces: Multiple Inheritance

Introduction

C# does not support multiple inheritance.

A class cannot have more than one superclass.

C# provides an approach known as interface to

support the concept of multiple inheritance.
An interface is a class with some differences:
All

members of an interface are implicitly public &

abstract.
An interface cannot contain constant fields,
constructors & destructors.
Its members cannot be declared static

Defining an Interface

General Form:
interface Interfacename
{
member declarations;
}

Like classes, interfaces can also be extended.

That is, an interface can be sub interfaced from other interfaces.

General Form:
interface name2:name1
{
Members of name2
}
Note: An interface can not extend classes

Example: 1
using System;
interface Addition
{
int Add();
}
interface Multiplication
{
int Mul();
}
class Computation:Addition,Multiplication
{
int x,y;
public Computation(int x,int y)
{
this.x=x;
this.y=y;
}
public int Add()
{
return(x+y);
}

public int Mul()

{
return(x*y);
}
}
class InterfaceTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Computation com=new Computation(10,20);
Addition add=(Addition)com; //casting
Console.WriteLine("Sum="+add.Add());

Multiplication mul=(Multiplication)com;
Console.WriteLine("Product="+mul.Mul());
}

Example: 2 --- Multiple Implementation of an Interface

using System;
interface Area
{
double Compute(double x);
}

class Interface2
{
public static void Main()
{
Square s=new Square();
Circle c=new Circle();

class Square:Area
{
public double Compute(double x)
{
return(x*x);
}
}

Area area;
area=s as Area;

class Circle:Area
{
public double Compute(double x)
{
return(Math.PI*x*x);
}
}

Console.WriteLine("Area of
Square="+area.Compute(10.2));

Console.WriteLine("Area of
Square="+area.Compute(10.2));
area=c as Area;

Interfaces & Inheritance

A base class of a derived class may

implement an interface.
When an object of the derived class is
converted to the interface type, the
inheritance hierarchy is searched for a
class that directly implements the
interface.
Example:

using System;
interface Display
{
void Print();
}
class B:Display
{
public void Print()
{
Console.WriteLine("Base Display");
}
}

class D:B
{
public new void Print()
{
Console.WriteLine("Derived
Display");
}
}
class Interface3
{
public static void Main()
{
D d=new D();
d.Print();

Display dis=(Display)d;
dis.Print();

Explicit Interface Implementation

It may be possible that multiple

interface have a method of a same
name.
This may create a problem when a
class implements more than one
interface.
C# supports a technique known as
explicit interface implementation,
which allows a method to specify
explicitly the name of the interface it
is implementing.

Example:
using System;
interface I1
{
void display();
}
interface I2
{
void display();
}

class C1:I1,I2
{
void I1.display()
{
Console.WriteLine("I1 Display");
}
void I2.display()
{
Console.WriteLine("I2 Display");
}
}
class Interface4
{
public static void Main()
{
C1 c=new C1();
I1 i1=(I1)c;
i1.display();
I2 i2=(I2)c;
i2.display();
}
}

Abstract Class & Interfaces

An abstract class can use an interface in the base class list.

Here the interface methods are implemented as abstract methods.

Example:
interface A
{
void Method();
}
abstract class B:A
{
.
.
public abstract void Method();
}
Here class B does not implement the interface method; it simply redeclares as a
public abstract method.
It is the duty of the class that derives from B to override & implement the method.

Chapter : 15
Operator Overloading

Introduction

The C# operators can be defined to work with the user-defined data

types such as structs & classes.
C# has the ability to provide the operators with a special meaning
for a data type.
This mechanism of giving such special meaning to an operator is
known as operator overloading.
Following is list of operators that can be overloaded.
Category

Operators

1. Binary Arithmetic

+,*,/,-,%

2. Unary Arithmetic

+,-,++,--

3. Binary bitwise

&,|,^,<<,>>

4. Unary bitwise

!,~,true,false

5. Relational Operators

==,!=,>=,<,<=,>

Cont

Following is list of operators that cannot be overloaded.

Category

Operators

1. Conditional operators

&&,||

2. Compound assignment

+=,-=,*=,/=,%=

3. Other operators

[ ],( ),=,?:,->,new,sizeof,typeof,is,as

Need for Operator Overloading

Operator overloading gives us syntactical convenience.

It helps us to generate more readable code in a number of
situations. These includes:

Financial programs.
Mathematical or physical modeling
Graphical programs
Text manipulations

General form of an operator method:

public static retval operator op(arglist)
{
Method body..
}

Overloading Unary Operators

using System;
class Space
{
int x,y,z;
public Space(int a,int b, int c)
{
x=a;
y=b;
z=c;
}
public void Display()
{
Console.Write(" "+x);
Console.Write(" "+y);
Console.Write(" "+z);
Console.WriteLine();
}
public static Space operator -(Space s)
{
s.x=-s.x;
s.y=-s.y;
s.z=-s.z;
return(s);
}
}

class SpaceTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Space s=new Space(10,20,30);
Space q;
Console.Write("S: ");
s.Display();
q=-s;
Console.Write("Q: ");
q.Display();

Overloading Binary Operators

using System;
class Complex
{
double x,y;
public Complex(){ }

public void display()

{
Console.Write(x);
Console.Write(" + j"+y);
Console.WriteLine();
}

public Complex(double real,double

imag)

class ComplexTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Complex a,b,c;
a=new Complex(2.5,3.5);
b=new Complex(1.6,2.7);
c=a+b;
c.display();
}
}

x=real;
y=imag;
}
public static Complex operator +
(Complex c1,Complex c2)
{
Complex c3=new Complex();
c3.x=c1.x+c2.x;
c3.y=c1.y+c2.y;
return(c3);
}

Overloading Comparison Operators

C# supports six comparison operators that can be

considered in three pairs:
==

& !=
> & <=
< & >=

The significance of pairing is two-fold:

Within

each pair, the second operator should always

give exactly the opposite result to the first.
C# always requires us to overload the comparison
operators in pairs. That is, if we overload ==, then we
must overload != also, otherwise it is an error.

Example:
using System;
class Vector
{
int x,y,z;
public Vector(int a,int b,int c)
{
x=a;
y=b;
z=c;
}
public static bool operator ==(Vector
v1,Vector v2)
{
if(v1.x==v2.x && v1.y==v2.y)
return(true);
else
return(false);
}

public static bool operator !=(Vector

v1,Vector v2)
{
return(!(v1==v2));
}
}
class CompareTest
{
public static void Main()
{
Vector u1=new Vector(1,2,3);
Vector u2=new Vector(1,2,3);
if(u1==u2)
Console.WriteLine("U1 is equal to
U2");
else
Console.WriteLine("U1 is not equal to
U2");
}
}

Chapter : 16
Delegates & Events
(IMP)

Introduction

A delegate object is a special type of object that contains the

details of a method rather than data.
Delegates in C# is used for two purposes:

Callback
Event Handling

Dictionary meaning of delegate is a person acting for

another person, in C# it means a method acting for another
method.
A delegate in C# is a class type object & is used to invoke a
method that has been encapsulated into it at the time of its
creation.

Delegate Declaration

General Form:

modifier delegate return-type delegate-name(parameters);

Delegate is derived from System.Delegate class.

The modifier controls the accessibility of the delegate.

Delegate may take any of the following modifiers:

new, public, private, protected, internal.
It is a class type & can be declared in any place where a
class definition is permitted.
A delegate may be defined in the following places:

Inside a class
Outside all classes
As the top level object in a namespace.

Delegate Methods

The methods whose references are encapsulated

into a delegate instances are known as delegate
methods (or callable entities)
The signature & return type of delegate methods
must exactly match the signature & return type
of the delegate.

Delegate Instantiation

A delegate-creation-expression is used to create a new instance of

a delegate.
General Form:

new delegate-type(expression)
Here the delegate-type is the name of the delegate declared earlier
whose object is to be created.
Expression must be the method name.

The method & the object to which a delegate refers are

determined when the delegate is instantiated.

This remains constant for the entire lifetime of the delegate.

It is not possible to change them, once the delegate is created.

Delegate Invocation

When a delegate is invoked, it in turn invokes the

method whose reference has been encapsulated
into the delegate.
General Form:

delegate_object(parameter

list);
The optional parameter list provides values for the
parameters pf the method to be used.

Example:
using System;
//Delegate Declaration
delegate int ArithOp(int x,int y);

class DelegateTest
{
public static void Main()
{

class MathOperation
{
public static int Add(int a,int b)
{
return(a+b);
}
public static int Sub(int a,int b)
{
return(a-b);
}
}

ArithOp op1=new
ArithOp(MathOperation.Add);
ArithOp op2=new
ArithOp(MathOperation.Sub);
int result1=op1(3,20);
int result2=op2(40,20);
Console.WriteLine("Result1="+result1
);

Console.WriteLine("Result2="+result2
);
}

Multicast Delegate

It is possible for delegates to hold & invoke multiple

methods.

Such delegates are called multicast delegates.

Also known as combinable delegates.

They must satisfy following conditions:

Return type of such delegate must be void.

None of the parameters of the delegates can be declared as
output parameters, using out keyword.

If D is a delegate & d1,d2,d3 & d4 are its instances, then

the statements:

d3=d1+d2 //refers to two methods.

d4=d3-d2 //refers to only d1 method

Example
using System;
delegate void MDelegate();
class DM
{
public static void Display()
{
Console.WriteLine("In Display");
}

class MDelegateTest
{
public static void Main()
{
MDelegate m1=new
MDelegate(DM.Display);
MDelegate m2=new
MDelegate(DM.Print);
MDelegate m3=m1+m2;
MDelegate m4=m2+m1;
MDelegate m5=m3-m2;

public static void Print()

{
Console.WriteLine("In Print");
}

}
}

m3();
m4();;
m5();

Events(IMP)

An event is a delegate type class member that is used by

the object or class to provide a notification to other object
that an event has occurred.
The client object can act on an event by adding an event
handler to the event.
General Form:

modifier event type event-name;

Since events are based on delegates, we must first declare a

delegate and then declare an instance of the delegate using
the keyword event.

Example
using System;
//Delegate Declaration
delegate void EDelegate(string str);
class EventClass
{
public event EDelegate Status;

class EventTest
{
public static void Main()
{
EventClass ec=new
EventClass();
EventTest et=new
EventTest();
ec.Status+= new
EDelegate(et.EventCatch);
ec.TriggerEvent();
}

public void TriggerEvent()

{
Status("Event Triggered");
}

public void EventCatch(string str)

{
Console.WriteLine(str);
}

Chapter : 17
Managing Console I/O Operations

The Console Class

The methods for reading & writing to the console are

provided by the System.Console class.
This class gives us access to the standard input, standard
output & standard error streams:
Stream Object

Represents

Console.In

Standard Input

Console.Out

Standard Output

Console.Error

Standard Error

Console Input

Supports two methods for obtaining input from

the keyboard.
Read():

Returns a single character as int.

ReadLine():

Returns a string containing a line of text.

Console Output

Supports two methods for writing to the console.

Write():

Outputs one or more values to the screen

without a new line character.

WriteLine():

Outputs one or more values to the screen

but adds a new line character at the end of the
output.

Exercise

Write a program in C# to print the following

output:
1
22
333
4444
55555
666666
7777777
88888888
999999999

Formatted Output

Use overloaded WriteLine()

method.
General Form:

Console.WriteLine(formatstring, v1, v2, .);

Format String contains both

static text & markers which
indicate

Example

Where the values are to be printed.

How the values are to be formatted.

Console.WriteLine(Sum of {0}
and {1} is {2},a,b,c);

We can also specify a width for

the value using the format:

{n,w}
n is the index number
w is the width for the value

Example:
int a=45;
int b=976;
int c=a+b;
Console.WriteLine({0,5\n+{1,5}\
n} ------- \n{2,5},a,b,c);
45
+976
----------1021

Numeric Formatting

Chapter : 18
Managing Errors & Exceptions

THANK YOU