Waves, the Wave Equation,

and Phase Velocity

f(x)

f(x-2)
f(x-1)
f(x-3)

What is a wave?
Forward [f(x-vt)] and
backward [f(x+vt)]
propagating waves
The one-dimensional wave equation
Harmonic waves
Wavelength, frequency, period, etc.

Phase velocity Complex numbers Plane waves and laser beams

Photons and photon statistics

What is a wave?
A wave is anything that moves.
To displace any function f(x) to the
right, just change its argument from
x to x-a, where a is a positive
number.
If we let a = v t, where v is positive
and t is time, then the displacement
will increase with time.

f(x)
f(x-2)
f(x-1)
f(x-3)

So f(x - v t) represents a rightward,

or forward, propagating wave.
Similarly, f(x + v t) represents a
leftward, or backward, propagating
wave.
v will be the velocity of the wave.

The one-dimensional wave equation

and its solution
Well derive the wave equation from Maxwells equations next class.
Here it is in its one-dimensional form for scalar (i.e., non-vector)
functions, f:
2
2

f
1 f
2 2 0
2
x
v t

Light waves (actually the electric fields of light waves) will be a

solution to this equation. And v will be the velocity of light.
The wave equation has the simple solution:

f ( x, t ) f ( x vt )
where f (u) can be any twice-differentiable function.

Proof that f (x vt) solves the wave equation

Write f (x vt) as f (u), where u = x vt. So u
and
1
x
f f u

x u x

Now, use the chain rule:

So

f f

x u

2
2

x 2 u 2

and

f
f
v
t
u

f f u

t u t
2
2

f
2

v
t 2
u 2

Substituting into the wave equation:

2 f
1 2 f
2 2
2
x
v t

2 f
1 2 2 f
2 v

2
u
v
u 2

u
v
t

The 1D wave equation for light waves

2E
2E
2 0
2
x
t

where E is the
light electric field

Well use cosine- and sine-wave solutions:

E ( x, t ) B cos[k ( x vt )] C sin[k ( x vt )]

kx (kv)t

or

E ( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )
where:

The speed of light in

vacuum, usually called
c, is 3 x 1010 cm/s.

A simpler equation for a harmonic wave:

E (x,t) = A cos[(kx t) ]
Use the trigonometric identity:

cos(zy) = cos(z) cos(y) + sin(z) sin(y)

where z = kx t and y = to obtain:

E (x,t) = A cos(kx t) cos() + A sin(kx t) sin()

which is the same result as before,

E ( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )
as long as:

A cos() = B and

A sin() = C

For simplicity, well

just use the forwardpropagating wave.

Amplitude and absolute phase

E (x,t) = A cos[(k x t ) ]
A = Amplitude
= Absolute phase (or initial phase)
Absolute
phase = 0

Absolute phase = 2/3

A
x
2

Wavelength,
etc.

Wavelength

Spatial quantities:

k-vector magnitude: k = 2/
wave number: = 1/
Period

Temporal quantities:

Temporal quantities:

t
angular frequency: = 2/
cyclical frequency: = 1/

The Phase Velocity

How fast is the wave traveling?

The phase velocity is the

wavelength / period:

v =
Since = 1/:

x
The wave moves one wavelength, ,
in one period, .

v = v

In terms of the k-vector, k = 2 and

the angular frequency, = 2 this is:
Its also helpful to define a phase delay, T,
that a wave experiences after propagating
a distance, d:

v =/k
T=d/v

Human wave

A typical human wave has a phase velocity of about 20 seats per

second.

The Phase of a Wave

The phase is everything inside the cosine.

E (x,t) = A cos(), where = k x t

=(x,t) and is not a constant, like !

In terms of the phase,

= /t
k = /x
And

/t
v =

/x

Well prove these

results later.

This formula is useful

when the wave is
really complicated.

Complex numbers

y (Imaginary)
x = A cos()

Consider a point,
P = (x,y), on a 2D
Cartesian grid.
Let the x-coordinate be the real part
and the y-coordinate the imaginary part
of a complex number.

P
y = A sin()

So, instead of using an ordered pair, (x,y), we can write:

The tilde under the P
means that P is complex.

P
~ = x+iy
= A cos() + i A sin()
where i 1

x (Real)

Euler's Formula
exp(i) = cos() + i sin()

so the point, P
~ = A cos() + i A sin(), can be written:

P
= A exp(i)
~
where

A = Amplitude
= Phase

Proof of Euler's Formula exp(i ) = cos( ) + i sin( )

Use Taylor Series:

x
x2
x3
f ( x) f (0) f '(0)
f ''(0)
f '''(0) ...
1!
2!
3!

x x 2 x3 x 4
exp( x) 1 ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos( x) 1 ...
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin( x) ...
1! 3! 5! 7! 9!
If we substitute x = i
into exp(x), then:

i 2 i 3 4
exp(i ) 1

...
1! 2! 3! 4!

3
2 4
1

... i
...
2! 4!

1! 3!
cos( ) i sin( )

Complex number theorems

If exp(i ) cos( ) i sin( )

exp(i ) 1
exp(i / 2) i
exp(-i ) cos( ) i sin( )
1
cos( ) exp(i ) exp( i )
2
1
sin( ) exp(i ) exp( i )
2i
A1exp(i1 ) A2exp(i 2 ) A1 A2 exp i(1 2 )

A1exp(i1 ) / A2exp(i 2 ) A1 / A2 exp i(1 2 )

More complex number theorems

Any complex number, z, can be written:
So
and

Omitting the tildes

for simplicity.

z = Re{ z } + i Im{ z }
Re{ z } = 1/2 ( z + z* )
Im{ z } = 1/2i ( z z* )

where z* is the complex conjugate of z ( i i )

The "magnitude," | z |, of a complex number is:

y (Imaginary)
x = A cos()

| z |2 = z z* = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2

To convert z into polar form, A exp(i):

A2 = Re{ z }2 + Im{ z }2
tan() = Im{ z } / Re{ z }

y=A
sin()
x (Real)

We can also differentiate exp(ikx) as if

the argument were real.
d
exp(ikx) ik exp(ikx)
dx
Proof :
d
cos(kx) i sin(kx) k sin(kx) ik cos(kx)
dx
1

ik sin( kx) cos(kx)

i

But 1/ i i, so :

ik i sin( kx) cos( kx)

Waves using complex numbers

The electric field of a light wave can be written:

E (x,t) = A cos(kx t )
Since exp(i) = cos() + i sin(), E(x,t) can also be written:

E (x,t) = Re { A exp[i(kx t )] }
or

E (x,t) = 1/2 A exp[i(kx t )] + c.c.

We often
write these
expressions
without the
, Re, or
+c.c.

where "+ c.c." means "plus the complex conjugate of everything

before the plus sign."

Waves using complex amplitudes

Define E(x,t)
to be the complex fieldwithout the Re:
~

E x, t A exp i kx t
%
E x, t A exp(i ) exp i kx t
%

where we've separated the constants from the rapidly changing stuff.
The resulting complex amplitude is:

E0 A exp(i )
%

So:

E x, t E0 exp i kx t
%
%

As written, this field is

complex!

How do you know if E0 is real or complex?

Sometimes people use the "~ under the Es, but not always.
So always assume it's complex.

Complex numbers simplify optics!

Adding waves of the same frequency, but different initial phase,
yields a wave of the same frequency.
This isn't so obvious using trigonometric functions, but it's easy
with complex exponentials:

Etot ( x, t ) E1 exp i (kx t ) E2 exp i (kx t ) E3 exp i (kx t )

%
%
%
%
( E1 E2 E3 ) exp i( kx t )
% % %

where all initial phases are lumped into E

~ 1, E
~ 2, and E
~ 3.

E2
E1

E3

E 1 E 2 E 3

x or t

The 3D wave equation for the electric field

and its solution!
A light wave can propagate in any
direction in space. So we must allow
the space derivative to be 3D:
or

2E
2E
2E
2E

2 0
2
2
2
x
y
z
t

which has the solution:

where
and

r2
2E
E 2 0
t

r r
E ( x, y, z , t ) E0 exp[i (k r t )]
%
%

r
r
k k x , k y , k z r x, y , z
r r
k r kx x k y y kz z
k 2 k x2 k y2 k z2

r r
E0 exp[i (k r t )] is called a plane wave.
%
A plane waves contours of maximum field, called wave-fronts or
phase-fronts, are planes. They extend over all space.

Wave-fronts
are helpful
for drawing
pictures of
interfering
waves.

A wave's wavefronts sweep

along at the
speed of light.

A plane wave's wave-fronts are equally

spaced, a wavelength apart.
They're perpendicular to the propagation
direction.

Usually, we just
draw lines; its
easier.

Laser beams vs. plane waves

A plane wave has flat wave-fronts throughout
all space. It also has infinite energy.
It doesnt exist.
A laser beam is more localized. We can approximate a laser
beam as a plane wave vs. z times a Gaussian in x and y:
exp(x2/w2)

x 2 y 2
E ( x, y, z , t ) E0 exp
exp[i (kz t )]

2
%
%
w

w
x

y
Localized wave-fronts

Laser beam
spot on wall

exp(tt)

Laser pulses

t
t

If we can localize the

beam in space by
multiplying by a
Gaussian in x and y, we
can also localize it in
time by multiplying by a
Gaussian in time.

x 2 y 2
t2
E ( x, y, z , t ) E0 exp 2 exp
exp[i (kz t )]
2
%
%
w
t

This is the equation for a laser pulse about t long.

Longitudinal vs. Transverse waves

Longitudinal:

Transverse:

Motion is along the

direction of propagation
longitudinal
polarization

Motion is transverse to the

direction of propagation
transverse polarization

Space has 3 dimensions, of which 2 are transverse to the

propagation direction, so there are 2 transverse waves in addition
to the potential longitudinal one.
The direction of the waves variations is called its polarization.

Vector fields
Light is a 3D vector field.
r r
A 3D vector field f (r )

assigns a 3D vector (i.e., an

arrow having both direction
and length) to each point in
3D space.

Wind patterns: 2D vector field

A light wave has both electric and magnetic 3D vector fields:

The 3D wave equation for the electric field

is actually a vector equation!
A light-wave electric field can point in any direction in space:

r2 r
E
E
0
2
t
2

which has the solution:

where
and
and

Note the arrow over the E .

r r
r
r
E ( x, y, z , t ) E0 exp[i (k r t )]
%
%

r
r
k k x , k y , k z r x, y , z
r r
k r kx x k y y kz z
r
E0 ( E0 x , E0 y , E0 z )
% % % %

Waves using complex vector amplitudes

We must now allow the complex field E and its amplitude E0 to be
%
%
vectors:

r r
r r
r
E r , t E0 exp i k r t

%
%

Note the arrows

over the E s!

The complex vector amplitude has six numbers that must be

specified to completely determine it!
x-component

y-component

z-component

r
E0 (Re{Ex } i Im{Ex }, Re{E y } i Im{E y }, Re{Ez } i Im{E z })
%

Light is not only a wave, but also a particle.

Photographs taken in dimmer light look grainier.
Very very dim

Bright

Very dim

Very bright

Dim

Very very bright

When we detect very weak light, we find that its made up of particles.
We call them photons.

Photons
The energy of a single photon is: h or h = (h/2)
where h is Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Joule-sec.
One photon of visible light contains about 10-19 Joules, not much!.
is the photon flux, or
the number of photons/sec
in a beam.
= P / h
where P is the beam power.

Counting photons tells us a lot about

the light source.
Random (incoherent) light sources,
such as stars and light bulbs, emit
photons with random arrival times
and a Bose-Einstein distribution.

Laser (coherent) light sources, on

the other hand, have a more
uniform (but still random)
distribution: Poisson.

Bose-Einstein
Poisson

Photons have momentum

If an atom emits a photon, it recoils in the opposite direction.

If the atoms are excited and then emit light, the atomic beam spreads
much more than if the atoms are not excited and do not emit.

PhotonsRadiation Pressure
Photons have no mass and always travel at the speed of light.
The momentum of a single photon is: h/, or hk
Radiation pressure = Energy Density

(Force/Area = Energy/Volume)

When radiation pressure cannot be neglected:

Comet tails (other forces are small)
Viking space craft (would've missed
Mars by 15,000 km)
Stellar interiors (resists gravity)
PetaWatt laser (1015 Watts!)

Photons
"What is known of [photons] comes from observing the
results of their being created or annihilated."

Eugene Hecht

What is known of nearly everything comes from observing the

results of photons being created or annihilated.