Special Topic seminar on

Statistical Wireless channel Modelling

Presented By :
Mohammad Azim Khan
M.E. EXTC
(Guide)
Prof. Dr. Rajesh Bansode

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Outline
Introduction
Literature Survey
Summary of literature survey
Problem Definition
Motivation
Scope
Block diagram of proposed system/execution steps
Maths in detail(Why)(flowghaph or algorithm steps)
Expected result
Conclusion
10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

References

Introduction

What is Wireless Network?

Uses radio waves to connect devices such as devices to the Internet and to your business network and
its applications

AdvantagesIncrease mobility and collaboration.

Improved responsiveness.
Better access to information.
Easy network expansion.
Enhanced guest access.
Security

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Wireless communication system

Message
signal

Channel Codeword
Modulated
transmitted
Source
Encoder

Source

Channel encoder

Modulator

Wireless
Channel

User

Source
Decoder

Estimate of message

10/5/16

Channel
decoder

Demodulator
Received signal

Estimate of channel code word

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Literature Survey
Ref.
No.

Author
(Year)

Paper title

Performance/ Results

[3]

Lekhraj
Udaigiriya
and Sudhir
Kumar
Sharma,

CCDF
for Performance Analysis
of OFDM Signals And
Implement PAPR
Rduction Techniques In
OFDM
System using CCDF
function on Matlab.

Comparison between the three PAPR reduction techniques PAPR at

CCDF of 10^-3 and 10^-5.
For Clipping technique PAPR at CCDF of=10^-3 and 10^-5, For Selected
mapping tech. PAPR at CCDF of=10^-3 and 10^-5,For Partial transmit
sequence technique. . PAPR at CCDF of=10^-3 and 10^-5
Modified Interleaving, Selected Mapping,Partial Transmit Sequences &
Tone Reservation techniques has the high PAPR reduction capability
compared with the conventional technique. This grade is achieved by slight
decrease in the data rate and a negligible degradation in the bit error
performance of the system. Among three Modified Tone Reservation
provides the best result.

[4]

Hemant
Dhabhai,
Dr.
Ravindra
Prakash
Gupta2, &
Anand Jain3

Parametric Comparison of
various Fading
Channels using MATLAB
Simulation.

For higher values of Eb /N0, the BER is decreasing in all the fading
channels for different modulation.
Eb/No
-5:0

BER in
AWGN
0.0935

BER of
Rayleigh
0.0905

BER in
rician
0.1094

20:25

0.00560

0.0072

0.000000
0263

at higher M-PSK schemes, more carrier power is needed to modulate the

signal to have low BER,& carrier must be increased. Nakagami fading
performance is better in comparison with other fading channels

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Literature Survey
Ref.

Author (Yr)

Paper title

Performance/ Results

[5]

Hadimani
H.C.1, Dr.
Mrityunjaya
V.Latte,

Wireless Signal
Qualitative Analysis of
Improving SNR for
MIMO Channels
Using 64 QAM.

At BER=10^-1 the Eb/No(AWGN channels)=5.6dB & for EB/No(Rician

Channel)=8.4dB.
At BER=10^-2 SNR=9dB for 8x8 sys. ,12dB for 6x6 sys.,18dB for 4x4 sys.,22dB
for 2x2 sys., & finally 26dB for 1x1 MIMO system.
At BER=10^-1 the SNR(MIMO-OFDM for 64-QAM in Rayleigh channel)=14db
for 8x8 sys.,18dB for 6x6 sys.,26dB for 4x4 sys.,28dB for 2x2 sys., & fianlly32dB
for 1x1x MIMO OFDM system.
For higher values of Eb / N0, the BER is decreasing BER is greater in Rayleigh
channel as compared to that of AWGN channel. MIMO OFDM graphs reveal the
fact that, as the Doppler shift increases, the BER performance decreases. 64-QAM
gives better performance compared to other modulations and even lower- and-higher
order QAM-modulations.

[6]

N.T. Awon, M.
M.Rahman, M.
A.Islam, A.Z.M.
Touhidul Islam

Effect of AWGN &

Fading (Raleigh &
Rician)
channels on BER
performance of a
WiMAX
communication System

At BER=10^-3,the Eb/No(AWGN=14,Eb/No(Rayleigh Channel.)=17

,Eb/No(rician channel.=25 for 16 QAM.
At BER=10^-2 the Eb/No(AWGN=13,Eb/No(Rayleigh Channel)=16
,Eb/No(rician channel.=24 for 64-QAM. The BER of AWGN channel. is the best of
all ch.as it has the lowest (BER) under QAM,16-QAM & 64-QAM.In Rayleigh
fading channel, BER affected by noise under QAM, 16-QAM & 64-QAM
modulation Because Rician fading channel. has higher BER than AWGN channel
and lower than Rayleigh fading channel. BER of this ch.has not been much affected
by noise under QAM, 16-QAM & 64-QAM modulation.

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Summary of literature survey

Power spectral density increases with increase in levels of modulation. For high power spectral density
of transmitter higher levels of QAM modulation techniques are preferred.
CDF is used in cumulative frequency analysis, which is the analysis of the frequency of occurrence of
values of a phenomenon less than a reference value.
For a 2x2 system simulation results showed that with increasing CFO, the BER increases. MIMO- OFDM
is emerging as a promising solution for the V2V communication in severe multi-path condition and also in
high mobility condition.
CCDF computes the power complementary cumulative distribution (CCDF) function from a time domain
signal. The CCDF curve shows the amount of time a signal spends above the average power level of the
measured signal, or equivalently, the probability that the signal power will be above the average power
level.
For higher values of Eb /N0, the BER is decreasing in all the fading channels for different modulation.
At higher M-PSK schemes, more carrier power is needed to modulate the signal to have low BER,&
carrier must be increased. Nakagami fading performance is better in comparison with other fading
channels.
The BER of AWGN channel. is the best of all channels.as it has the lowest (BER) under QAM,16-QAM &
64-QAM.In Rayleigh fading channel, BER affected by noise under QAM, 16-QAM & 64-QAM
modulation Because Rician fading channel. has higher BER than AWGN channel and lower than Rayleigh
fading channel. BER of this ch.has not been much affected by noise under QAM, 16-QAM & 64-QAM
modulation.

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Problem Definition

This topic gives an overview to statistical modeling of the wireless channel, beginning with the most
intuitive model of the time-varying channel, followed by the first and second order statistical parameters,
which characterizes real-life channels. A an approach to demonstrate flat fading in communication systems
is to be presented here, wherein the basic concepts are reinforced by means of a series of Matlab
simulations

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

Fading Mechanism
Fading

Large Scale Fading

Attenuation with
distance

Small Scale Fading

Variation about
mean
Time delay spread
/Multipath

Flat Fading

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Frequency Selective
Fading

Doppler shift / time

variance of channel

Fast Fading

Flat Fading Freq.

BW of signal<BW of channel
Delay spread<Symbol period

Frequency Selective Fading

BW of signal>BW of channel
Delay spread>Symbol period

Fast Fading
High Doppler Spread
Coherence time< Symbol period

Slow fading
Lower Doppler Spread
Coherence time< Symbol period

Channel variation faster than

Channel variation slower than

Special topic Seminar on statistical

baseband signal variation
baseband signal variation9
Wireless Channel Modelling

Slow Fading

Fading

Fluctuations of received signal strength over short time intervals and interference from multiple copies
of Tx signal arriving at Rx at slightly different times. The important effects are.

Changes in the frequency of signals.

Due smearing of the signal and interference between bits that are received, because of spreading of
signals in time domain.

Reflections from ground & surrounding buildings (clutter) as well as scattered signals from trees, people,
towers, etc.

Even stationary Tx/Rx wireless links can experience fading due to the motion of objects (cars, people,
trees, etc.) in surrounding environment off of which come the reflections.

Multipath signals have randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, & direction of arrival.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Comparison between attenuation and fading

Attenuation:
1.Attenuation is a loss of communication
signal strength measured in decibels (dB).
2.What Causes Attenuation?
3.attenuation is usually measured in units
of decibels per unit length of medium
(dB/cm, dB/km, etc.) and is represented by
the attenuation coefficient of the medium.
4.Attenuation occurs on computer networks due to,
range , interference, wire size.
5.Attenuation coefficient:
6.quantify different media according to
how strongly the transmitted ultrasound
amplitude decreases as a function of
frequency.

used to determine total attenuation in

dB.

Attenuation=[dB/
(MHz.cm).lm[cm].f[MHz]

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Fading:
1.Deviation of the attenuation affecting a signal over
certain propagation media.
2.Varies with time, geographical position or radio
frequency, and is often modelled as a random process
3. due to multipath propagation referred to as multipath
induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles
affecting the wave propagation sometimes referred to as
shadow fading.

4. Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a

cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram Time is shown
on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and
signal strength as grey-scale intensity.
5.Fading models:nakagami fading, Rayleigh fading,rician
fading, long term shadow fading.

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Propagation mechanisms

A: free space
B: reflection
C: diffraction
D: scattering

Reflection: object is large compared to wavelength

Scattering: object is small or its surface irregular

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Special topic Seminar on statistical Wireless

Channel Modelling

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Doppler Shift

motion causes frequency modulation due to Doppler shift (fd)

: velocity (m/s)
: wavelength (m)
: angle between mobile direction and arrival direction of RF energy

+ shift mobile moving toward S

shift mobile moving away from S

10/5/16

Special topic Seminar on statistical Wireless

Channel Modelling

13

Doppler shift effect in high mobility condition

Doppler effect introduce carrier frequency offset in OFDM system.

Larger the Doppler shift more is the degradation in BER performance.

the higher order modulation the system become more sensitive towards
Doppler change.

Performance of 2x2 VBLAST MIMO-OFDM systems with

different Doppler frequency
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SNR vs. BER Curves for 2x2 VBLAST MIMOOFDM with different Doppler frequency.

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

14

Signal Losses due to three Effects

2. Medium Scale Fading due to
shadowing and obstacles

3. Small Scale Fading:

due to multipath

1. Large Scale Fading:

due to distance

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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1. Large Scale Fading: Free Space

Path Loss due to Free Space Propagation:

For isotropic antennas:

Transmit
antenna

Receive
antenna

Ptransm
4 d
c
wavelength
F

Prec

Path Loss in dB:

Ptransm
20 log10 ( F ( MHz )) 20log10 ( d ( km)) 32.45
Prec

L 10log10
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Special topic Seminar on statistical Wireless

Channel Modelling

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2. Medium Scale Fading

Losses due to Buildings, Trees, Hills, Walls

The Power Loss in dB is random:

L p E L p
expected value

random, zero mean

approximately Gaussian with

6 12 dB

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Average Loss
Free space loss at
reference distance

d
L0
E{L p } 10 log 10
d0

dB

Reference distance

Path loss exponent

E L p L0

10

20dB
102

10/5/16

101 100 10

log10 ( d / d 0 )

indoor 1-10m

outdoor 10-100m

Values for Exponent

Free Space 2
Urban

2.7-3.5

Indoors

(LOS)1.6-1.8

Indoors(NLOS)

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

4-6

18

Small Scale Fading due to Multipath.

a . Spreading in Time: different paths have different lengths;

Receive

Transmit

x ( t ) ( t t0 )

t0

y (t ) L hk (t t0 k ) ...

t0

time

Example for 100m path difference we have a time delay

100
102

13 sec
8
c
3 10
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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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1 2

b. Spreading in Frequency: motion causes frequency shift (Doppler)

x(t ) X T e j 2 Fct

Receive

Transmit

y (t ) YR e

j 2 Fc F t

time

v
time

for each path

Doppler Shift

fc
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Fc F Frequency (Hz)

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Bottom Line. This:

x(t )

y (t )
time
time

v
1
l

time

can be modeled as:

L
x (t )
time

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c1 (t )

cl (t )

delays

cN ( t )

y (t )

time

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Classification of Multipath Channels

Depending on the relation between signal parameters (bandwidth and symbol period) and channel
parameters (delay spread and Doppler spread) different signals undergo different types of fading\

Based on delay spread the types of small scale fading are

Flat fading
Frequency selective fading

Based on Doppler spread the types of small scale fading are

Fast fading
Slow fading

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Flat fading

Occurs when the amplitude of the received signal changes with time

Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted signal is much larger than the Delay Spread of the channel
Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.

The channel has a flat transfer function with almost linear phase, thus affecting all spectral components of
the signal in the same way may cause deep fades.
Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Flat Fading

s(t)

r(t)
h(t,t)
t << TS

TS

Occurs when:
BS << BC
and
TS >> st

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TS+t

BC: Coherence bandwidth

BS: Signal bandwidth
TS: Symbol period
st: Delay Spread

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Frequency selective fading:

A channel that is not a flat fading channel is called frequency selective fading because different
frequencies within a signal are attenuated differently by the MRC.

Occurs when channel multipath delay spread is greater than the symbol period.

Symbols face time dispersion

Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the channel impulse response.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Frequency Selective Fading

r(t)

s(t)
h(t,t)

t >> TS

TS

0 TS

TS+t

Causes distortion of the received baseband signal

Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

Occurs when:
BS > BC
and
TS < st

10/5/16

As a rule of thumb:
TS < s t

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Fast Fading

Rate of change of the channel characteristics is larger than the rate of change of the transmitted signal
The channel changes during a symbol period.
The channel changes because of receiver motion.
Coherence time of the channel is smaller than the symbol period of the transmitter signal

Occurs when:
BS < BD
and
TS > TC

10/5/16

BS: Bandwidth of the signal

BD: Doppler Spread
TS: Symbol Period
TC: Coherence Bandwidth

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Slow Fading

Rate of change of the channel characteristics is much smaller than the rate of change of the
transmitted signal

Occurs when:
BS >> BD
and
TS << TC

10/5/16

BS: Bandwidth of the signal

BD: Doppler Spread
TS: Symbol Period
TC: Coherence Bandwidth

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Wireless Channel Modelling

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10/5/16

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Wireless Channel Modelling

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Fading Distributions

Describes how the received signal amplitude changes with time.

Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple signals arriving from different
directions, phases and amplitudes.
With the received signal we mean the baseband signal, namely the envelope of the received
signal (i.e. r(t)).

Its is a statistical characterization of the multipath fading.

Two distributions
Rayleigh Fading
Rician Fading

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Rayleigh and Rician Distributions

Rayleigh Distributions

Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels, where all the components are non-LOS:
i.e. there is no line-ofsight (LOS) component.
Rician Distributions

Describes the received signal envelope distribution for channels where one of the multipath components is
LOS component.
i.e. there is one LOS component.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Rayleigh fading model

Used for flat fading signals.

Formed from the sum of two
Gaussian noise signals.
: RMS value of Rx signal before
detection (demodulation).
common model for Rx signal variation
urban areas heavy clutter no LOS path
Rayleigh distribution has the PDF given by:

p( r ) 2 e

2
r
2

(0 r )
( r 0)

Time delays

Power distribution P=[P1,P2,,PN]

Maximum Doppler

T [ 1 , 2 ,..., N ]

FD

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Rician fading channel

one dominant signal component along with weaker multipath signals.

-dominant signal LOS path.
-suburban or rural areas with
light clutter.
It becomes a Rayleigh distribution
as the dominant component
weakens.

Dominant wave=sum of two

dominant signals.
K
Power through LOS
PLOS
PTotal

Power through NOLOS PNOLOS

10/5/16

1 K
1

PTotal
1 K

Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

33

Additive White Gaussian Noise Model

AWGN is the commonly used to transmit signal while signals travel from the channel and simulate
background noise of channel

The mathematical expression of

received signal is r(t) = s(t) + n(t)-that
passed through the AWGN channel
where s(t) is transmitted signal and n(t) is background noise.

AWGN is a noise that affects the transmitted signal when it

passes through the channel. It contains a uniform continuous
frequency spectrum over a particular frequency band.

The transmitted signal gets disturbed by a simple additive white Gaussian noise process.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)

Thermal noise is described by a zero-mean Gaussian random process, n(t) that ADDS on to the signal =>
additive.

Its PSD is flat, hence, it is called white noise. Autocorrelation is a spike at 0: uncorrelated at any non-zero
lag.

[w/Hz]
Power spectral
Density
(flat => white)

Autocorrelation
Function
(uncorrelated)
Probability density function
(Gaussian)
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Wireless Channel Modelling

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Impact of AWGN & Channel Distortion

hc (t ) (t ) 0.5 (t 0.75T )

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Wireless Channel Modelling

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Parameters to measure in wireless communication

Bit Error Rate (BER).

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR).

Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF).

Complementary Cumulative Distribution Function (CCDF).

Probability Density Function (PDF).

Power Spectral Density (PSD)

Outage Probabilitty

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

37

SNR vs BER: AWGN vs Rayleigh

Need
diversity
techniques
to deal with
Rayleigh
(even 1-tap,
flat-fading)!

Performance of coherent BPSK vs. non coherent orthogonal signalling over Rayleigh fading
channel vs. BPSK over AWGN channel

Observe the waterfall like characteristic (essentially plotting the Q(x) function)!
Telephone lines: SNR = 37dB, but low b/w (3.7kHz)
Wireless: Low SNR = 5-10dB, higher bandwidth (upto 10 Mhz, MAN, and 20Mhz LAN)
Optical fiber comm: High SNR, high bandwidth ! But cant process w/ complicated codes, signal processing etc

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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BER in AWGN, Rayleigh and Rician fading channels in 64-QAM modulation

Eb/No

BER in AWGN

BER in Rayleigh

BER in Rician

-5:0

0.0935

0.0905

0.1094

0:5

0.0948

0.0935

0.0991

5:10

0.0763

0.0769

0.0742

10:15

0.0431

0.046

0.025728

15:20

0.0168

0.02

0.000772

20:25

0.0056

0.0072

0.0000000263

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Performance of AWGN, Raleigh and Rician channels

Bit error rate (BER) performance of AWGN, Raleigh and Rician channels for (i) 8-QAM modulation
technique And (ii) 16-QAM modulation technique.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Cumulative Distribution function

It is defined as the probability that

a random variable X with a given
probability distribution f(x) will be
found at a value less than x.

The cumulative distribution function

is a cumulative sum of the probabilities
up to a given point. FX(x)=P(Xx)
The PDF is given by taking the
first derivate of CDF.
fX(x)=dFX(x)dx.

wireless scheduling algorithm based

on the (CDF) is used to measure the
transmission rates/channel capacity
w.r.t outage capacity(Pb=0.1) &
ergodic/mean capacity(Pb=0.5).

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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Capacity of AWGN Channel

Capacity of AWGN channel

If average transmit power constraint is watts

and noise psd is watts/Hz,

Example : Flaw on a Magnetic Disk Distribution Function

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Complementary cumulative distribution function

A statistical power calculation method and can only be performed on time-domain data.

The CCDF deals with digitally modulated signals in spread-spectrum systems such as CDMA One,
cdma2000, and W-CDMA.Because these types of signals are noise-like, CCDF curves provide a useful
characterization of the signal power peaks. CCDF shows the amount of time the signal spends above any
given power level.

Fully characterize the power statistics of a digitally modulated signal. determine the impact of filtering on a
signal.

CCDF curves are a valuable measurement tool for spread-spectrum systems.

We can expect to see correlation studies between CCDF curve degradation and digital radio system
parameters such as BER, FER, CDP, and ACPR.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

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CCDF for PAPR reduction in OFDM

CCDF of PAPR with different

(16-QAM constellation)

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Special topic Seminar on statistical Wireless Channel

45
Modelling

Probability density function

Describe the statistical characteristics

of the fading processes.

It is defined as the probability that a random variable X with a given probability distribution
f(x) will be found at a value less than x. The cumulative distribution function is a cumulative
sum of the probabilities up to a given point.

In the design of compliant Time Hopping Impulse radio (TH-IR) Ultra-Wide Band (UWB)
systems, the PSD is enhanced by suppressing the spectral lines. Which is achieved using the
diminishing the spectral lines through increasing the randomness of the transmitted signal in
order to smooth somehow its spectrum and to reduce the interference problem on the users of
other applications.

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statistical Wireless Channel

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Probability density function

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Power Spectral Density

A measure of a signal's power intensity in the frequency domain & computed from the FFT spectrum of a signal.

Use to characterize the amplitude versus

frequency content of a random signal.

Modulation
techniques

Signal strength increases with

modulation levels
PSD is better for higher levels of
QAM modulation techniques.

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Special topic Seminar on statistical

Wireless Channel Modelling

BPSK
QPSK
16-QAM
64-QAM

48

Power spectral
density
(PSD, dB/MHz)
-32.5
-32.5
-22.5
-17

Outage Probability

A measure of the quality of the transmission in a mobile radio channel.

It can be calculated as the integral of the received signal power p(t) as
The procedure to find the outage probability is as follows:
p
t
out

pth

p (t )dt

1. Calculate the received signal power as given in equation.

2. Set a threshold power level for the received signal relative to the average signal power.
3. Count the number of times in the sample interval that the received signal power goes below this threshold.
4. Using the basic concept of probability, the outage is then calculated by taking the ratio of the count in step 3
to the total number of samples.

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0.5
poutth
poutsim

0.45

outage probability

0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
-35

-30

-25

-20

-15
-10
-5
thrshold power dBm

10

Figure Outage probability for Rayleigh fading and stationary mobile. Simulated values are compared against
theoretically computed outage values.

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Table I. Comparison of outage probability for Rayleigh and Rician fading for a number of values
of mobile velocities

10/5/16

Mobile velocity in m/s

Outage Probability
(Rayleigh)

Outage Probability
(Rician)

0.19149

0.09311

0.19193

0.09312

0.19246

0.09314

0.19303

0.09346

0.19339

0.09350

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Conclusion

For a 2x2 system simulation results showed that with increasing CFO, the BER increases.

It can be concluded that in MIMO systems, more the number of receive antennas, lesser is the BER due to
space diversity.

For higher values of Eb / N0, the BER is decreasing in all the fading channels for different modulation
schemes.

With the change in m values at the high SNR level the system performance improves dramatically with
respect to that of in low SNR level.

PDF of a continuous random variable, whose integral across an interval gives the probability that the value
of the variable lies within the same interval.

CDF increases with increase in the value of random variable.

CCDF is inversely proportion to PAPR ratio.

PSD is computed from the FFT spectrum of a signal. PSD is better for higher levels of QAM modulation
techniques.
The probability of outage increases as the mobile velocity, or resulting Doppler shift,
increases

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References
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