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m103 Presentationunit 1-2

The American industry focused on improving quality since the 1980s, following the success of Japanese companies in producing high-quality products through the use of statistical methods and statistical thinking among management. Statistical methods involve collecting scientific data to make judgments amid uncertainty and variation. The document then provides definitions and explanations of key statistical terms like population, sample, descriptive and inferential statistics. It also discusses sources of data, methods of data collection including primary and secondary data, and sampling techniques like random, stratified, systematic and cluster sampling.

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Valar Morghulis
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90 views25 pages

m103 Presentationunit 1-2

The American industry focused on improving quality since the 1980s, following the success of Japanese companies in producing high-quality products through the use of statistical methods and statistical thinking among management. Statistical methods involve collecting scientific data to make judgments amid uncertainty and variation. The document then provides definitions and explanations of key statistical terms like population, sample, descriptive and inferential statistics. It also discusses sources of data, methods of data collection including primary and secondary data, and sampling techniques like random, stratified, systematic and cluster sampling.

Uploaded by

Valar Morghulis
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The American Industry focused on the IMPROVEMENT

OF QUALITY since 1980 and continuing into the 21st


century.
Beginning in the middle of the 20th century, Japanese
succeeded in the PRODUCTION OF HIGH QUALITY
PRODUCTS where most of the countries failed. Their
success has been attributed to use of STATISTICAL
METHODS and STATISTICAL THINKING AMONG
MANAGEMENT PERSONNEL
STATISTICAL METHOD involves gathering of
information or scientific data. These are designed to
contribute in making scientific judgments in uncertainty
and variation.

STATISTICS

A science that deals with the collection, presentation,


analysis & interpretation of data of numerical data.

Importance of Statistics

Persons active in research will find that basic understanding


of statistics is useful not only in the conduct of their
investigations, but also in the effective presentation
of their findings in papers, reports for publication and at
professional meetings
A person with understanding of statistics is better able to
decide whether his or her professional colleagues use their
statistics to illuminate or merely support their personal
biases

An understanding of statistics can help anyone discriminate


between fact and fancy in everyday life.
Also, an understanding of statistics helps a lot in the
formulation of valid and useful conclusions and interpretations
for equally important researches and experiments.
USES OF STATISTICS
1. To present the data in a concise and definite form
2. To make it easy to understand complex and large data.
3. For comparison
4. In forming policies
5. Enlarging individual experiences
6. In measuring the magnitude of a phenomenon

IMPORTANT TERMS IN STATISTICS


1. POPULATION a collection of persons, objects,

or items of interest
2. SAMPLE a portion of the whole
3. CENSUS a process of gathering data from the whole
population for a given measurement of interest
TWO CATEGORIES OF STATISTICS
1. DESCRIPTIVE statistics that have been gathered on a group to
describe or reach conclusions about that same group
- concerned with the collection, presentation & summarization of data
2. INFERENTIAL statistics that have been gathered from a sample
& used to reach conclusions about the population from which the
sample was taken
- concerned with testing of hypothesis using t-test, z- test, Anova,
coefficient of correlation, 2

Sources of Data
DATA are needed whenever we make studies or researches.
They have been used to undertake particular problems or to
provide a basis with certain decisions are generate
DATA COLLECTION the next step to be done after the
problem has been defined in the study
Statistical Data according to source
1.PRIMARY DATA data collected directly by the researcher
himself
- these are first hand or original sources
They can be collected through the following:
direct observation or measurement
by interview using set of questions called questionnaires or
rating scales as guides in collecting objective and measurable
data

by experimentation to find out cause and effect of a certain


phenomenon
by registration such as registry of births, deaths and marriages.
The latter is governed by certain laws.
by online survey ,mail of recording or of reporting forms via
ordinary and special mails, courier services, e-mail, and fax to
reach out distant data providers

2. SECONDARY DATA information taken from published or


unpublished materials previously gathered by other
researchers or agencies such as book, newspaper, magazines,
journals, published, and unpublished thesis and dissertations

Methods of Data Collection


1. DIRECT OR INTERVIEW
person to person exchange between interviewer &interviewee
ADVANTAGE:
quick response
provides consistent & more precise information
maybe repeated or modified to suit the level of understanding
of interviewee
DISADVANTAGE
limited field coverage
expensive
time consuming

2. INDIRECT OR QUESTIONNAIRE
- written responses are given to prepared question
- makes use of questionnaires
ADVANTAGE:
can cover wide area in shorter time
inexpensive
respondents feel a greater sense of freedom to express views
and opinions
DISADVANTAGE:
questions not easily understood will probably not be answered
probability of non response especially if questionnaires are
mailed
tends to give incomplete information

3. REGISTRATION METHOD
- gathering of data enforced by law
ADVANTAGE:

systematized and readily available


DISADVANTAGE:

problem arises when an agency doesnt have


management information system
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
- determine the cause and effect relationship of the
phenomena under controlled condition
- scientific researchers uses this form

ADVANTAGE:
objectivity of information since a scientific method of inquiry
is used
DISADVANTAGE:
its too difficult to find respondents with almost similar
characteristics
whole method must be replaced if the desired outcome is not
reached
5. OBSERVATION METHOD
- researcher observes behavior of persons, culture of
organizations, performance outcome of employees/students
are to be considered

6. TELEPHONE/CELLPHONE METHOD
- survey is done by the use of telephone
ADVANTAGE:
quick response possible
can be inexpensive if dialing is local
DISADVANTAGE:
caller ID, answering machines limit access
not everyone has a telephone
unpublished phone #s (unless random dialing used)
language barrier could affect any method

7. WEB BASED METHOD


- posting a questionnaire on a website with respondents
typically replying from individual computers
ADVANTAGE:
easy for respondents to reply
web software can tally, summarize response data
can be inexpensive if web server, web designer and software
are available
quick response possible

POPULATION AND SAMPLE


POPULATION any collection of individual items or units
that are subject of investigation
Variables characteristics of population that differ from
individual to individual
Ex. Length, age, weight, temperature, number of heart beats
SAMPLE a portion or part of the population of interest
Sample Unit a collection with specified dimensions
OBSERVATION the number of objects or items counted in a
sampling unit. Each unit in the sample provides a record such
as a measurement

The relationship between the terms defined above is summarized


below:
Observation:
3.2 kg
Variable:
weight
Sample Unit (item):
a new born male baby
Sample:
those new born male babies that are
weighed
Statistical Population:
all new born male babies that are
available for weighing
REASONS FOR SAMPLING
The sample can save money and time.
If accessing the population is impossible
Because research process is sometimes destructive, the sample can
save products.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- sampling in w/c every unit of the population has the same
chance of being selected for the sample
-you can do it only with a frame (complete list of population
under study)
4 BASIC RANDOM OR PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
- most elementary of the random sampling techniques
- easier to perform on small than on large populations
- involves numbering each item in the population & using a
list or roster of random numbers to select items for the
sample

2.Stratified Random Sampling


- sampling in w/c the population is divided into various nonoverlapping strata & then items are randomly selected from
each stratum
- used when it is known that the response of interests is related
to some factor (e.g. sex, age)
- used to reduce sampling error
Strata- subgroups
Stratum (layer)- collection of individuals (sampling unit) that are
alike as possible

Example:
In FM radio markets age of listener is an important determinant of the type of programming used by station
Stratified Random Sampling of FM Radio Listeners

20-30 yrs. Old


(homogenous within)

30-40 yrs. Old


(homogenous within)
40-50 yrs. Old
(homogenous within)

Heterogenous
(different in between)
Heterogenous
(different in between)

3. Systematic Sampling
- every kth item or person is selected from the population
- used because of its convenience and ease of administration
k=N
n
where N = population
n = sample size
Example: n = 20
N = 800 engineers
k = 800
20
= 40

The 1st engineer (sampling unit) is selected at random from


among engineers numbered 1 to 40 (1 k).
For example 23 was selected
1- 23
2- 63
3- 103
4- 143
5- 183
6- 223
7- 263
8-303
9- 343
10-383

11- 423
12- 463
13- 503
14- 543
15- 583
16- 623
17- 663
18- 703
19- 743
20- 783

4. Cluster (or area) Sampling


- the population is divided into non-overlapping areas or
clusters & elements are randomly sampled from the area or
clusters
- used when it is not possible or practicable to enumerate every
member of the study population
*** In contrast to stratified, the strata should be heterogenous.
Each cluster must contain a wide variety of elements.
Examples of clusters are towns, companies, homes, colleges,
areas of a city and geographic regions.
PROCEDURE:
After choosing the clusters, the researcher randomly selects
individual elements into the sample from the clusters.
Example:

Test Marketing of New Bearings

Health Condition in Quezon City

NON RANDOM OR NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING


-sampling in w/c not every unit of the population has the same
chance of being selected for the sample
4 BASIC NON RANDOM OR NON PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1. Convenience Sampling
- the researcher typically chooses items that are readily
available, nearby & or willing to participate
Example:
A convenience sample of homes for door to door interviews, the
researcher will include houses where people are at home, houses
w/ no dogs, houses near the street, 1st floor apartments & houses
w/ friendly people

In contrast, a random sample would require researcher to


gather data only from houses & apartments that have been
selected randomly no matter how inconvenient or unfriendly
the location
If researcher firm is located in a mall, convenience sample
might be selected by interviewing only shoppers who pass the
shop & look friendly.

2. Judgment Sampling
- elements selected for the sample are chosen by the
judgment of the researcher
- there is no objective for determining whether one
persons judgment is better than others

Example:
Study to determine the reactions of licensed engineers
about PRC s directive in the renewal of professional
licenses.
3.Quota Sampling
- the population is stratified on some characteristics & then
elements selected for the sample are chosen by non random
process
- each stratum is obtained by using the most accessible unit as
long as they represent the identified subgroup

Example:
Quota: students with asthma between 16-20 years old
*** We dont identify all individuals satisfying these criteria in
the population in order to take a random sample rather we
simply select the first 20 individuals who present themselves
& fulfill these criteria
Disadvantage: These individuals may not represent the study
population
4. Snowball Sampling
- survey subjects who fit a desired profile are selected based on
referral from other survey respondents who also fit the desired
profile

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