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CH 07

This document discusses symmetric encryption and key distribution. It covers the placement of encryption at different network layers and endpoints. Properly distributing secret keys between parties securely is identified as critical. The document also examines using deterministic pseudorandom number generators and true natural random sources to generate random values needed for cryptography.

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Koushik Akkinapalli
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134 views23 pages

CH 07

This document discusses symmetric encryption and key distribution. It covers the placement of encryption at different network layers and endpoints. Properly distributing secret keys between parties securely is identified as critical. The document also examines using deterministic pseudorandom number generators and true natural random sources to generate random values needed for cryptography.

Uploaded by

Koushik Akkinapalli
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Cryptography and

Network Security
Chapter 7
Fourth Edition
by William Stallings
Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Chapter 7 Confidentiality Using


Symmetric Encryption
John wrote the letters of the alphabet under the letters in
its first lines and tried it against the message.
Immediately he knew that once more he had broken the
code. It was extraordinary the feeling of triumph he had.
He felt on top of the world. For not only had he done it,
had he broken the July code, but he now had the key to
every future coded message, since instructions as to the
source of the next one must of necessity appear in the
current one at the end of each month.
Talking to Strange Men, Ruth Rendell

Confidentiality using Symmetric


Encryption
traditionally symmetric encryption is used

to provide message confidentiality

Placement of Encryption
have two major placement alternatives
link encryption

encryption occurs independently on every link


implies must decrypt traffic between links
requires many devices, but paired keys

end-to-end encryption

encryption occurs between original source


and final destination
need devices at each end with shared keys

Placement of Encryption

Placement of Encryption
when using end-to-end encryption must

leave headers in clear

so network can correctly route information

hence although contents protected, traffic

pattern flows are not


ideally want both at once

end-to-end protects data contents over entire


path and provides authentication
link protects traffic flows from monitoring

Placement of Encryption
can place encryption function at various

layers in OSI Reference Model

link encryption occurs at layers 1 or 2


end-to-end can occur at layers 3, 4, 6, 7
as move higher less information is encrypted
but it is more secure though more complex
with more entities and keys

Encryption vs Protocol Level

Traffic Analysis
is monitoring of communications flows

between parties

useful both in military & commercial spheres


can also be used to create a covert channel

link encryption obscures header details

but overall traffic volumes in networks and at


end-points is still visible

traffic padding can further obscure flows

but at cost of continuous traffic

Key Distribution
symmetric schemes require both parties to

share a common secret key


issue is how to securely distribute this key
often secure system failure due to a break
in the key distribution scheme

Key Distribution

given parties A and B have various key


distribution alternatives:
1.
2.
3.

4.

A can select key and physically deliver to B


third party can select & deliver key to A & B
if A & B have communicated previously can
use previous key to encrypt a new key
if A & B have secure communications with a
third party C, C can relay key between A & B

Key Hierarchy
typically have a hierarchy of keys
session key

temporary key
used for encryption of data between users
for one logical session then discarded

master key

used to encrypt session keys


shared by user & key distribution center

Key Distribution Scenario

Key Distribution Issues


hierarchies of KDCs required for large

networks, but must trust each other


session key lifetimes should be limited for
greater security
use of automatic key distribution on behalf
of users, but must trust system
use of decentralized key distribution
controlling key usage

Random Numbers

many uses of random numbers in cryptography

nonces in authentication protocols to prevent replay


session keys
public key generation
keystream for a one-time pad

in all cases its critical that these values be

statistically random, uniform distribution, independent


unpredictability of future values from previous values

Pseudorandom Number
Generators (PRNGs)
often use deterministic algorithmic

techniques to create random numbers

although are not truly random


can pass many tests of randomness

known as pseudorandom

numbers

created by Pseudorandom Number

Generators (PRNGs)

Linear Congruential
Generator

common iterative technique using:


Xn+1 = (aXn + c) mod m

given suitable values of parameters can produce a


long random-like sequence
suitable criteria to have are:

function generates a full-period


generated sequence should appear random
efficient implementation with 32-bit arithmetic

note that an attacker can reconstruct sequence


given a small number of values
have possibilities for making this harder

Using Block Ciphers as PRNGs

for cryptographic applications, can use a block


cipher to generate random numbers
often for creating session keys from master key
Counter Mode
Xi = EKm[i]

Output Feedback Mode


Xi = EKm[Xi-1]

ANSI X9.17 PRG

Blum Blum Shub Generator

based on public key algorithms


use least significant bit from iterative equation:

xi = xi-12 mod n
where n=p.q, and primes p,q=3 mod 4

unpredictable, passes next-bit test


security rests on difficulty of factoring N
is unpredictable given any run of bits
slow, since very large numbers must be used
too slow for cipher use, good for key generation

Natural Random Noise

best source is natural randomness in real world


find a regular but random event and monitor
do generally need special h/w to do this

eg. radiation counters, radio noise, audio noise,


thermal noise in diodes, leaky capacitors, mercury
discharge tubes etc

starting to see such h/w in new CPU's


problems of bias or uneven distribution in signal

have to compensate for this when sample and use


best to only use a few noisiest bits from each sample

Published Sources

a few published collections of random numbers


Rand Co, in 1955, published 1 million numbers

generated using an electronic roulette wheel


has been used in some cipher designs cf Khafre

earlier Tippett in 1927 published a collection


issues are that:

these are limited


too well-known for most uses

Summary
have considered:

use and placement of symmetric encryption to


protect confidentiality
need for good key distribution
use of trusted third party KDCs
random number generation issues

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