Chapter 5

Using Predicate Logic

Can represent objects and quantification
Theorem proving is semi-decidable

1.
Marcus was a man.

man(Marcus)

2.
Marcus was a Pompeian.

Pompeian(Marcus)

3.
All Pompeians were Romans.

x: Pompeian(x) Roman(x)

4.
Caesar was a ruler.

ruler(Caesar)

5.
All Pompeians were either loyal to Caesar or hated

him.
x: Roman(x) loyalto(x, Caesar) hate(x, Caesar)

6.
Every one is loyal to someone.

x: y: loyalto(x, y)
y: x: loyalto(x, y)

7.
People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal

to.
x: y: person(x) ruler(y) tryassassinate(x, y)

loyalto(x, y)

8.
Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.

tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
10

Was Marcus loyal to Caesar?
man(Marcus)
ruler(Caesar)
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar)
x: man(x) person(x)
loyalto(Marcus, Caesar)
11
12

Many English sentences are ambiguous.
There is often a choice of how to represent
knowledge.
Obvious information may be necessary for

reasoning
We may not know in advance which statements to

deduce (P or P).
15
Reasoning
1.
2.
All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79

A.D.
3.
It is now 2008 A.D.
Is Marcus alive?
16
Reasoning
1.

Pompeian(Marcus)
2.
All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79

A.D.
erupted(volcano, 79) x: Pompeian(x) died(x, 79)
3.
It is now 2008 A.D.

now = 2008
17
Reasoning
1.

Pompeian(Marcus)
2.
All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.

erupted(volcano, 79) x: Pompeian(x) died(x, 79)
3.
It is now 2008 A.D.

now = 2008
x: t1: t2: died(x, t1) greater-than(t2, t1) dead(x, t2)
18
Resolution
Robinson, J.A. 1965. A machine-oriented logic
based on the resolution principle. Journal of ACM
12 (1): 23-41.
19
Resolution
The basic ideas
KB |
KB |false
20
Resolution
The basic ideas
KB |
KB |false
( ) ( )
( )
21
Resolution
The basic ideas
KB |
KB |false
( ) ( )
( )
sound and complete
22
Resolution in Propositional Logic

1.
Convert all the propositions of KB to clause form (S).
2.
Negate and convert it to clause form. Add it to S.
3.
Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no

progress can be made.
a. Select two clauses ( P) and ( P).
b. Add the resolvent ( ) to S.
23
Resolution in Propositional Logic

Example:
KB = {P, (P Q) R, (S T) Q, T}
=R
24
Resolution in Predicate Logic

Example:
KB = {P(a), x: (P(x) Q(x)) R(x), y: (S(y) T(y))
Q(y), T(a)}
= R(a)
25

Unification:
UNIFY(p, q) = unifier where SUBST(, p) = SUBST(, q)
26

Unification:
x: knows(John, x) hates(John, x)
knows(John, Jane)
y: knows(y, Leonid)
y: knows(y, mother(y))
x: knows(x, Elizabeth)
UNIFY(knows(John,
UNIFY(knows(John,
UNIFY(knows(John,
mother(John)/x}
UNIFY(knows(John,
x), knows(John, Jane)) = {Jane/x}

x), knows(y, Leonid)) = {Leonid/x, John/y}
x), knows(y, mother(y))) = {John/y,
x), knows(x, Elizabeth)) = FAIL
27

Unification: Standardization
UNIFY(knows(John, x), knows(y, Elizabeth)) = {John/y,
Elizabeth/x}
28

Unification: Most general unifier
UNIFY(knows(John, x), knows(y, z))
John/z}
= {John/y, John/x,
=
=
=
=
{John/y,
{John/y,
{John/y,
{John/y,
Jane/x, Jane/z}
v/x, v/z}
z/x, Jane/v}
z/x}
29

Unification: Occur check
UNIFY(knows(x, x), knows(y, mother(y))) = FAIL
30
Conversion to Clause Form

1.
Eliminate .
P Q P Q
2.
Reduce the scope of each to a single term.

(P Q) P Q
(P Q) P Q
x: P x: P
x: p x: P
P P
3.
Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a

unique variable.
(x: P(x)) (x: Q(x)) (x: P(x)) (y: Q(y))
31

4.
Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their

relative order.
(x: P(x)) (y: Q(y)) x: y: (P(x) (Q(y))
5.
Eliminate (Skolemization).
x: P(x) P(c)
x: y P(x, y) x: P(x, f(x))
6.
Skolem constant
Skolem function
Drop .
x: P(x) P(x)
7.
Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.

(P Q) R (P R) (Q R)
8.
Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.
9.
Standardize apart the variables in the set of obtained

clauses.
32

1.
Eliminate .
2.
Reduce the scope of each to a single term.
3.
Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique

variable.
4.
Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their relative

order.
5.
Eliminate (Skolemization).
6.
Drop .
7.
Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.
8.
Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.
9.
Standardize apart the variables in the set of obtained clauses.

33
Example
1.
Marcus was a man.
2.
3.
All Pompeians were Romans.
4.
Caesar was a ruler.
5.
All Pompeians were either loyal to Caesar or hated him.
6.
Every one is loyal to someone.
7.
People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal

to.
8.
Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.

34
Example
1.
Man(Marcus).
2.
Pompeian(Marcus).
3.
x: Pompeian(x) Roman(x).
4.
ruler(Caesar).
x: Roman(x) loyalto(x, Caesar) hate(x, Caesar).
x: y: loyalto(x, y).
x: y: person(x) ruler(y) tryassassinate(x, y)

loyalto(x, y).
8.
tryassassinate(Marcus, Caesar).
35
Example
Prove:
hate(Marcus, Caesar)
36
Question Answering
1. When did Marcus die?
2. Whom did Marcus hate?
3. Who tried to assassinate a ruler?
4. What happen in 79 A.D.?.
5. Did Marcus hate everyone?
37
Question Answering
PROLOG:
Only Horn sentences are acceptable
38
Question Answering
PROLOG:
The occur-check is omitted from the unification:

unsound
test P(x, x)
P(x, f(x))
39
Question Answering
PROLOG:
The occur-check is omitted from the unification:

unsound
test P(x, x)
P(x, f(x))
Backward chaining with depth-first search: incomplete

P(x, y) Q(x, y)
P(x, x)
Q(x, y) Q(y, x)
40
Question Answering
PROLOG:
Unsafe cut: incomplete

A B, C
B D, !, E
D
B, C
D, !, E, C
!, E, C
41
Question Answering
PROLOG:
Unsafe cut: incomplete

A B, C
B D, !, E
D
B, C
D, !, E, C
!, E, C
Negation as failure: P if fails to prove P

42
Homework
Exercises 1-13, Chapter 5, Rich&Knight AI Text Book
43

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Using Predicate Logic

Using Predicate Logic

Using Predicate Logic

Marcus was a man.

Using Predicate Logic

Marcus was a Pompeian.

Using Predicate Logic

All Pompeians were Romans.

Using Predicate Logic

Caesar was a ruler.

Using Predicate Logic

All Pompeians were either loyal to Caesar or hated

Using Predicate Logic

Every one is loyal to someone.

Using Predicate Logic

People only try to assassinate rulers they are not loyal

x: y: person(x) ruler(y) tryassassinate(x, y)

Using Predicate Logic

Marcus tried to assassinate Caesar.

Using Predicate Logic

Using Predicate Logic

Obvious information may be necessary for

We may not know in advance which statements to

Marcus was a Pompeian.

All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79

It is now 2008 A.D.

Marcus was a Pompeian.

All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79

It is now 2008 A.D.

Marcus was a Pompeian.

All Pompeians died when the volcano erupted in 79 A.D.

It is now 2008 A.D.

sound and complete

Resolution in Propositional Logic

Convert all the propositions of KB to clause form (S).

Negate and convert it to clause form. Add it to S.

Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no

Resolution in Propositional Logic

Resolution in Predicate Logic

Resolution in Predicate Logic

Resolution in Predicate Logic

x), knows(John, Jane)) = {Jane/x}

Resolution in Predicate Logic

Resolution in Predicate Logic

Resolution in Predicate Logic

Conversion to Clause Form

Reduce the scope of each to a single term.

Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a

Conversion to Clause Form

Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their

Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.

Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.

Standardize apart the variables in the set of obtained

Conversion to Clause Form

Reduce the scope of each to a single term.

Standardize variables so that each quantifier binds a unique

Move all quantifiers to the left without changing their relative

Convert the formula into a conjunction of disjuncts.

Create a separate clause corresponding to each conjunct.