COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

B-TECH 6TH SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
C. V. RAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BHUBANESWAR-752054

Communication Engineering Laboratory

Subject Code-PCEC7306

PCEC 7306 COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING LAB L. T. P.: 0-0-3

List of experiments
(Any 10 experiment have to be perform in the lab of around 40 hours.)

1) Radiation pattern of Dipole, Yagi, Helical and Slot Antenna

2) Velocity Measurement using Doppler radar.
3) Study of different blocks of color TV receiver such as RF amplifier, IF amplifier, sync separator,
vertical oscillator, color picture tube etc. and measurement of various voltage signal waveform.
4) Polarization Detection of Dipole, Yagi, Helical and Slot Antenna.
5) Measurement of Refractive Index profile, Numerical Aperture, attenuation and bending
loss/dispersion in a multimode optical fiber.
6) Study the laser diode and determination of its characteristics.
7) Measurement of Gain of a fiber communication link using (a) optical fiber, (b) free Space.
8) Establishing and testing an optical Fiber Communication Link.
9) Simulation of a PN sequence generator using MATLAB.
10) Simulation of direct sequence spread spectrum technique using MATLAB.
11) Simulation of TDM and WDM using MATLAB.

Exp-1: Radiation pattern of Dipole, Yagi, Helical and Slot Antenna

Aim of the experiment: To study Radiation Pattern of Dipole, Yagi and Helical
Antenna.
Equipment and Components Required:
1. AT-3200A (Main Controller Unit)
2. PC Connecting Cable(2m)
3. Motor Controller Cable(1m)
4. Software CD
5. AT-3200B (Transmitting Unit)
6. AT-3200C (Receiving Unit)
7. Antenna under study I.e. :
8. Folded Dipole(/2)
9. Yagi UDA
10.Helical antenna
11.One PC

Theory:
An antenna (plural antennae or antennas), or aerial, is an electrical device which
converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a
radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an
electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current
(AC)) to the antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of
the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its
terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.
A Yagi-Uda antenna, commonly known simply as a Yagi antenna, is a
directional antenna consisting of multiple parallel elements in a line, usually made of
metal rods.[Yagi-Uda antennas consist of a single driven element connected to the
transmitter or receiver with a transmission line, and additional parasitic elements: a socalled reflector and one or more directors. It was invented in 1926 by Shintaro Uda of
Tohoku Imperial University, Japan.

 In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely
used class of antenna. It consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods,
which are usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for
receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the
antenna. Each side of the feedline to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the
conductors.

A helical antenna is an antenna consisting of a conducting wire wound in the form of a helix. In
most cases, helical antennas are mounted over a ground plane. The feed line is connected between
the bottom of the helix and the ground plane. Helical antennas can operate in one of two principal
modes normal mode or axial mode.

 Radiation Pattern: The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength or more often
the power intensity as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna.
An antenna pattern is of course three dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as a
two dimensional pattern in one or several planes.
An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major
power is concentrated in the main lobe and it is required to keep the power in the side lobes and back
lobe as low as possible.

Calculation:
Calculate Beam width, front to back ratio and gain of the antennas.

Some terms related with antenna:

Bandwidth:
The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies the antenna will radiate effectively; i.e., the antenna will
perform satisfactorily throughout this range of frequencies. When the antenna power drops (3 dB), the upper
and lower extremities of these frequencies have been reached and the antenna no longer performs satisfactorily.
Bandwidth can be expressed in one of the two ways;
As percentage or,
As a fraction or multiple of an octave (An octave is a band of frequencies between upper and lower frequency)
Beam width:
The beam width of an antenna is described as the angles created by comparing the half-power points (3 dB) on
the main radiation lobe to its maximum power point.
Polarization:
Polarization of an antenna refers to the direction in space of the E field (electric vector) portion of the
electromagnetic wave being radiated by the transmitting system.
Front to back ratio:
The front to back ratio is measure of the ability of a directional antenna to concentrate the beam in the required
forward direction. In linear terms, it is defined as the ratio of the maximum power in the beam (bore sight) to the
in the back lobe. It is usually expressed in decibels, as the difference between the level on bore sight and at 180
off bore sight.
Directive Gain:
Directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density in a particular direction of one antenna to the power
density that would be radiated by an Omni-directional antenna (isotropic antenna). The power density of both
types of antenna is measured at a specified distance, and a comparative ratio is established.

EXP-2: Velocity measurement using Doppler RADAR(Radio Detection and Ranging)

Aim of the Experiment:

Velocity measurement using Doppler RADAR

Objective: Determination of the velocity of the object moving in the Radar range.
Equipment Needed:
NV2001 trainer unit
Audio Cable for PC Line In input
Din connector cable (5Pin)
SMPS Supply
Tripod Stand
Fan with Stand
Sliding Platform
Trans-receiver Unit + Horn Antenna
Stand for moving the Pendulum
One PC installed with Doppler frequency measurement software

Theory

Technical Specifications of NV2001:

Transmitting Frequency:
Output Power:
Operating Voltage:
Antenna:
IF Output:
Power Supply:

10 GHz
10 to 15mW
8.6V or adjustable
Horn
Audio range
230V 10%, 50Hz

Concept of Doppler RADAR and Theory:

A simple Doppler RADAR sends out continuous sine waves rather than pulses, as the
one shown in fig. It uses the Doppler Effect to detect the frequency change caused by a
moving target and displays this as a relative velocity.
Doppler Effect
When the target is moving relative to Radar, an apparent shift in the carrier frequency
of the received signal will result. This effect is called the Doppler Effect and it is the
basis of continuous wave (CW) Radar.

 Cont.

The Doppler frequency is given by

OR

BLOCK DIGRAM OF CW DOPPLER RADAR

Where,
Fd = Doppler frequency
Ft = transmission frequency.
Vr = Relative velocity of target with respect to Radar
l = Wavelength of transmitted wave.
C = Velocity of light.

The transmitter generates a continuous oscillation of frequency Fo that is radiated by the antenna. The target
intercepts a portion of this radiated energy and the receiving antenna collects the reradiated energy. If the target
is in motion with a velocity (Vr) relative to the Radar, the received signal will be shifted in frequency from the
transmitted frequency Fo by an amount Fd. The plus sign for an approaching target and minus for a receding
target. The received echo signal (Fo Fd) enters the Radar via the antenna and is mixed in a detector mixer with
a portion of the transmitter signal Fo to produce the Doppler frequency Fd. The purpose of using a amplifier is to
eliminate the echo from stationary targets and to amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate
an indicating device such as a frequency counter .

Radar bands and an explanation of where they are used:

L-Band: 1-2 GHz, 15-30 cm wavelength. Mostly used for clear-air turbulence studies.
S-Band: 2-4 GHz, 08-15 cm wavelength. Used for long- and short- range weather surveillance. The WSR-88Ds
(Nexrad) is S- band. Not easily attenuated but require large dishes and motors.
C-Band: 4-8 GHz, 04-08 cm wavelength. Used for short-range weather surveillance (e.g., near airports).
Portability means they're often used in research field programs. Nice tradeoff between X- and
S-Bands: Nearby bands are often used for microwave communications links.
X-Band: 8-12 GHz, 2.5-4 cm wavelength. Used for very short-range work; very sensitive to smaller particles and
thus useful for studies of early cloud development. However, attenuated rapidly as they pass through storms.
Share some space with Police speed Radar.
K-Band: 12-18, 27-40 GHz, 1.7-2.5, .75-1.2 cm wavelength. Actually two bands, split downs the middle by a
strong water vapor absorption line. Similar comments as with X-bands, above. Also share space with police Radar.

Exp:3- Determination of polarization of Dipole and Yagi Antenna.

Aim of the experiment: To study determination of polarization of Dipole and Yagi Antenna.
Equipment Required:
RF Generator
RF Detector
Power Adopter
Dipole Antenna
Yagi Antenna
Theory: Polarization of an antenna refers to the direction in space of the E-field (electric vector) portion of the electromagnetic wave being
radiated by the transmitting system.
A horizontally polarized antenna will not communicate with a vertically polarized antenna. Due to the reciprocity theorem, antennas
transmit and receive in exactly the same manner. Hence, a vertically polarized antenna transmits and receives vertically polarized
fields. Consequently, if a horizontally polarized antenna is trying to communicate with a vertically polarized antenna, there will be no
reception
In general, for two linearly polarized antennas that are rotated from each other by an angle , the power loss due to this polarization
mismatch will be described by the Polarization Loss Factor (PLF):

PLF= cos2

Hence, if both antennas have the same polarization, the angle between their radiated E-fields is zero and there is no power loss due
to polarization mismatch. If one antenna is vertically polarized and the other is horizontally polarized, the angle is 90 degrees and no
power will be transferred.
Low-frequency antennas are usually vertically polarized because of ground effect (reflected waves, etc) and physical construction
methods. High-frequency antennas are generally horizontally polarized. Horizontal polarization is the more desired of the two
because of its rejection to noise made by people, which is, most part, vertically polarized.

for Polarization
Setup
Detection
Power
Supply

RF
Generator

Observation
Transmittin Transmitte
Table:
g
d
Power
Antennas (A)
Orientation
Horizontal

Horizontal

Power
Amplifier

RF Detector

Receiving
Received
Antennas Power (A)
Orientation
Horizontal

Vertical

Power
Supply

Exp No: 4 -Measurement of Numerical Aperture, Attenuation and Bending Loss/Dispersion in a multimode optical

fiber

Equipment and Components Required:

Fiber optic Trainer kit (ST2502)
Optical fiber cable (0.5m and 1m length)
Mandrel, Numerical aperture measurement jig and scale
DSO and DSO probe
Theory:
Fibre-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another
by sending pulses of light through an optical fibre. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier
wave that is modulated to carry information.
An optical fibre cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibres that are used to carry light.
The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained in a
protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be deployed. Different types of
cable are used for different applications, for example long distance telecommunication, or
providing a high-speed data connection between different parts of a building.
An optical fibre (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fibre made by drawing glass (silica) or
plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibres are used most often
as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fibres and find wide usage in fibre-optic
communications, where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths
(data rates) than wire cables. Fibres are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along

 The size of the optical fiber is commonly referred to by the outer diameter of its core,
cladding and coating. Example: 50/125/250 indicates a fiber with a core of 50 microns,
cladding of 125 microns, and a coating of 250 microns.
Refractive Index (n)
The refractive index of a material is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the material.

Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding

material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of
total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide.

Refractive indices of :
water = 1.33
diamond = 2.42
Silica=1.45
air 1

 Numerical Aperture- In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a

dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can
accept or emit light.
Numerical Aperture refers to the sine of the maximum angle at which the light incident at
the end of the optical fiber cable, is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly
down the length of the cable. The cone form by the rotation of this angle along the axis of the
fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber end within its cone
of acceptance else it is refracted into the cladding of the cable and may be lost.

Numerical
= (experimental,
the distance
of the screen(jig) from the fiber
SI. No. Aperture
Diameter
Distanceby recording
Numerical
Acceptanc
end as L and noting of
down the
the diameter
of
the circle
to which light
is coinciding as W )
of
the
Aperture
e Angle

light
Observation Table:

spot(W)

screen of
the fiber
end(L)

Study of propagation Loss

Attenuation is loss of power. During transit, light pulses lose some photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a
fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. For commercially available fiber cables attenuation ranges from 1 dB/km for
premium small-core glass fibers to over 2000 dB/km for a large-core plastic fiber. Loss is by definition negative decibels. In
common usage, discussion of loss omits the negative sign. The basic measurement of loss in a fiber is made by taking the
logarithmic ratio of the input power (Pi) to the output power (Po).

SI. NO

INPUT
VOLTAGE

OUPUT
VOLTAGE

LOSS

Bending Loss:
Whenever the condition of angle of incident for total internal reflection is violated, the losses are
introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to bend(here in the
experiment, wind the cable over the Mandrel like; 1 number of bend, 2 number of bend and so on
and note down the corresponding detector output keeping input constant).Lower the radius of
curvature
is the lossInput
.
No ofmore
Bend

Loss

voltage

Output
voltage

Exp No:5 - Aim of the experiment: Study of Characteristics of LASER Diodes

i.e. Optical Power (Po) of LASER Diode vs. LASER Diode Forward Current (I F)
Equipments Needed:
Digital Multi-meters
ST2506 Laser Diode Trainer Kit
Optical Fiber Cable
Specification of the LASER DIODE(at 650 nm):
Symb
Parameter
Typica
ol
l
Po
Iop
W
MTTF

CW output power
Operating Current
Wavelength at peak emission
Mean time to failure

2.5
30
650
10,000

Unit
mw
mA
Nm
hrs

Circuit description/theory:
A LASER diode has a built in photo detector, which one can employ to monitor the optical intensity
of the LASER at a specified forward current. This device is also effectively utilized in designing an optical
negative feedback control loop, to stabilize the optical power of a LASER in the steep lasing region. The
electronic circuit scheme that employs the monitor photodiode to provide a negative feedback for
stabilization of optical power is known as the Automatic Power Control Mode (APC). If a closed loop
employs current control alone to set optical power then this mode is called the Automatic Current
Control Mode (ACC).
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser" originated as an acronym for
"light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". The first laser was built in 1960 by
Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and
Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently.
Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as
laser cutting and lithography.

The schematic diagram for study of the LASER Diodes output Optical Power (Po) as a
function of LASER Diodes forward current IF is shown below and is self explanatory.

Table of Readings:

Sr. No

VL (mV)

IF = (VL /
100)mA

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Po =
(reading/10)
dBm

Exp.No7: To study the gain of the optical fiber link using optical fiber cable and
in free space.
Equipments Needed:
ST2506 Fiber Optic trainer Kit
Multi-meters
DSO
Function Generator

Using optical fiber cable

Table of Readings: Vout vs. Vin :

Frequency = 2 KHz; Carrier Level Po = -15dBm; Initial Gain = minimum position.

Sr. No.
Vin (mV p-p)
Vout (mV p-p)
G= Vo/Vin
1

in free space:
Sr. No.

Vin (mV p-p)

Vout (mV p-p)

G= Vo/Vin

Exp.No:8 - Simulation of PN sequence generator by using Matlab.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
Matlab version 7.0 Software
PC
Theory
PN Sequence generator generates a pseudorandom binary number by using shift registers.PN
sequence produced by a linear feedback shift register with m flip-flops cannot be exceed 2 m-1.When
the period is exactly 2m-1 the PN sequence is called a maximum length sequence or m-sequence.
To generate PN Sequence Matlab 7.0 is used. A PN Sequence is generated by means of feedback shift
register.PN Sequence is determined by the length m of the shift register, its initial state & the
Feedback logic. The procedure followed by the NRZ encode is used to get encoding data Streams.

Exp.No:9- Simulation of TDM and WDM using MATLAB

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
Matlab version 7.0 Software
PC
Theory:

Exp.no.10-Simulation of direct sequence spread spectrum technique using MATLAB.

Equipment Required:
Matlab version 7.0( and above) Software
PC

Theory:
In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum
modulation technique. Spread spectrum systems are such that they transmit the message
bearing signals using a bandwidth that is in excess of the bandwidth that is actually needed
by the message signal. This spreading of the transmitted signal over a large bandwidth
make the resulting wideband signal appear as a noise signal which allows greater
resistance to intentional and unintentional interference with the transmitted signal.
One of the methods of achieving this spreading of the message signal is provided by DSSS
modulation. In DSSS the message signal is used to modulate a bit sequence known as the
Pseudo Noise (PN) code; this PN code consists of pulses of a much shorter duration (larger
bandwidth) than the pulse duration of the message signal, therefore the modulation by the
message signal has the effect of chopping up the pulses of the message signal and thereby
resulting in a signal which has a bandwidth nearly as large as that of the PN sequence. In
this context the duration of the pulse of the PN code is referred to as the chip duration and
the smaller this value, the larger the bandwidth of the resultant DSSS signal and the more
immune to interference the resultant signal becomes.

Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a "noise" signal. This noise signal is a
pseudorandom sequence of 1 and 1 values, at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal.
The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However, this noise-like signal is used to exactly
reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 1 = 1, and 1
1 = 1). This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the transmitted PN sequence with the PN
sequence that the receiver already knows the transmitter is using.

The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain. This effect
can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit, but physical devices
used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable processing gain.
If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence (or no
sequence at all), the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for that signal. This effect is the
basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters
to share the same channel within the limits of the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.
As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped envelope
centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except that the added noise
causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM transmission.
In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier, instead of
adding pseudo-random noise to the data, the latter process results in a uniform frequency distribution
whose width is determined by the output range of the pseudorandom number generator.

THANK
YOU