The Networking

Devices
Chapter 3
The Networking Devices

Hubs, Bridges and Switches

Lecture 3

#2

Lectur
e3

Network Interface Card

The function of a NIC is to connect a host device to the network medium.
A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot on the motherboard or
peripheral device of a computer. The NIC is also referred to as a network adapter.
NICs are considered Data Link Layer devices because each NIC carries a
unique code called a MAC address.

MAC Address
MAC address is 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve hexadecimal
digits.MAC addresses are sometimes referred to as burned-in addresses
(BIA) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are
copied into random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.

Repeater
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal.
Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by
transmission loss due to attenuation.Repeater is a Physical
Layer device

The 4 Repeater Rule

The Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be
used as a standard when extending LAN segments.

This rule states that no more than four repeaters

can be used between hosts on a LAN.
This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by
each repeater.

Hub
Hubs concentrate
connections.In other words,
they take a group of hosts
and allow the network to see
them as a single unit.
Hub is a physical layer
device.

Hubs
Physical Layer devices: essentially repeaters

operating at bit levels: repeat received bits on

one interface to all other interfaces
Hubs can be arranged in a hierarchy (or multitier design), with backbone hub at its top

Lecture 3

#8

Hubs (more)
Each connected LAN referred to as LAN segment
Hubs do not isolate collision domains: node may
collide with any node residing at any segment in
LAN
Hub Advantages:
o simple, inexpensive device
o Multi-tier provides graceful degradation: portions
of the LAN continue to operate if one hub
malfunctions
o extends maximum distance between node pairs
(100m per Hub)
Lecture 3

#9

Hub limitations
single collision domain results in no increase in
max throughput
o multi-tier throughput same as single segment
throughput
individual LAN restrictions pose limits on number
of nodes in same collision domain and on total
allowed geographical coverage
cannot connect different Ethernet types (e.g.,
10BaseT and 100baseT) Why?

Lecture 3

#10

Bridge
Bridges are Data Link layer devices.Connected host
addresses are learned and stored on a MAC address
table.Each bridge port has a unique MAC address

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Bridges

12

Bridging Graphic

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Bridges
Link Layer devices: operate on Ethernet
frames, examining frame header and
selectively forwarding frame based on its
destination
Bridge isolates collision domains since it
buffers frames
When frame is to be forwarded on
segment, bridge uses CSMA/CD to access
segment and transmit
Lecture 3

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Bridges: frame filtering, forwarding

bridges filter packets
o same-LAN -segment frames not forwarded onto
other LAN segments

forwarding:
o how to know on which LAN segment to forward
frame?

Lecture 3

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Interconnection Without Backbone

Not recommended for two reasons:

- single point of failure at Computer Science hub
- all traffic between EE and SE must path over CS segment

Lecture 3

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Bridge Filtering

bridges learn which hosts can be reached through

which interfaces: maintain filtering tables
o when frame received, bridge learns location
of sender: incoming LAN segment
o records sender location in filtering table
filtering table entry:
o (Node LAN Address, Bridge Interface, Time
Stamp)
o stale entries in Filtering Table dropped (TTL can
be 60 minutes)

Lecture 3

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Ethernet Switches
layer 2 (frame)
forwarding, filtering using
LAN addresses
Switching: A-to-B and Ato-B simultaneously, no
collisions
large number of
interfaces
often: individual hosts,
star-connected into
switch
o Ethernet, but no
Lecture 3collisions!

#18

Switch
Switches are Data Link
layer devices.
Each Switch port has a
unique MAC address.
Connected host MAC
addresses are learned and
stored on a MAC address
table.
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Switching Modes
cut-through
A switch starts to transfer the frame as soon as the destination MAC
address is received. No error checking is available.
Must use synchronous switching.
store-and-forward
At the other extreme, the switch can receive the entire frame before
sending it out the destination port. This gives the switch software an
opportunity to verify the Frame Check Sum (FCS) to ensure that the frame
was reliably received before sending it to the destination.
Must be used with asynchronous switching.
fragment-free
A compromise between the cut-through and store-and-forward modes.
Fragment-free reads the first 64 bytes, which includes the frame header,
and switching begins before the entire data field and checksum are read.
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Ethernet Switches
cut-through switching: frame forwarded
from input to output port without awaiting
for assembly of entire frame
o slight reduction in latency
combinations of shared/dedicated,
10/100/1000 Mbps interfaces

Lecture 3

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Full Duplex
Another capability emerges when only two nodes are connected. In a network that
uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is used to carry the transmitted signal from one
node to the other node. A separate pair is used for the return or received signal. It is
possible for signals to pass through both pairs simultaneously. The capability of
communication in both directions at once is known as full duplex.

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Switches MAC Tables

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Switches Parallel Communication

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Microsegmentation
A switch is simply a bridge with many ports. When only one node is connected to a
switch port, the collision domain on the shared media contains only two nodes.
The two nodes in this small segment, or collision domain, consist of the switch port
and the host connected to it. These small physical segments are called micro
segments.

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Peer-to-Peer Network
In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers act as equal partners, or peers.
As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function.
At one time, computer A may make a request for a file from computer B, which
responds by serving the file to computer A. Computer A functions as client, while B
functions as the server. At a later time, computers A and B can reverse roles.
In a peer-to-peer network, individual users control their own resources. Peer-topeer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. As networks grow, peer-topeer relationships become increasingly difficult to coordinate.

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Client/Server Network
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated
computer called a server.
The server responds to the requests of clients.
The server is a central computer that is continuously available to respond to
requests from clients for file, print, application, and other services.
Most network operating systems adopt the form of a client/server relationship.

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Optional: Wireless LAN and PPP

#28

Lectur
e3

IEEE
802.11
Wireless
LAN
wireless LANs: untethered (often mobile)
networking
IEEE 802.11 standard:
o MAC protocol
o unlicensed frequency spectrum: 900Mhz,
Basic Service Set (BSS)
2.4Ghz
(a.k.a. cell) contains:
wireless hosts
access point (AP): base
station
BSSs combined to form
distribution system (DS)
Lecture 3

#29

Ad Hoc Networks

Ad hoc network: IEEE 802.11 stations

can dynamically form network without
AP
Applications:
o laptop meeting in conference room,
car
o interconnection of personal devices
o battlefield
IETF MANET
(Mobile Ad hoc Networks)
working group
Lecture 3

#30

IEEE 802.11 MAC

Protocol:
CSMA/CA
802.11 CSMA: sender
- if sense channel idle for
DISF sec.
then transmit entire frame
(no collision detection)
-if sense channel busy
then binary backoff
802.11 CSMA receiver:
if received OK
return ACK after SIFS
Why?
Lecture 3

#31

IEEE
802.11
MAC
Protocol
802.11 CSMA Protocol:
others
NAV: Network
Allocation
Vector
802.11 frame has
transmission time
field
others (hearing data)
defer access for NAV
time units
Lecture 3

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Hidden Terminal effect

hidden terminals: A, C cannot hear each other
o obstacles, signal attenuation
o collisions at B
goal: avoid collisions at B
CSMA/CA: CSMA with Collision Avoidance

Lecture 3

#33

Collision Avoidance: RTSCTS exchange

CSMA/CA: explicit
channel reservation
o sender: send short
RTS: request to send
o receiver: reply with
short CTS: clear to
send
CTS reserves channel
for sender, notifying
(possibly hidden)
stations
avoid hidden station
collisions
Lecture
3

#34

Collision Avoidance: RTSCTS exchange

RTS and CTS short:

o collisions less likely, of
shorter duration
o end result similar to
collision detection
IEEE 802.11 allows:
o CSMA
o CSMA/CA: reservations
o polling from AP

Lecture 3

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Point to Point Data Link

Control

one sender, one receiver, one link:

easier than broadcast link:
o no Media Access Control
o no need for explicit MAC addressing
o e.g., dialup link, ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocols:
o PPP (point-to-point protocol)
o HDLC: High level data link control
(Data link used to be considered
high layer in protocol stack!)
Lecture 3

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PPP Design Requirements

[RFC 1557]
packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer
datagram in data link frame
o carry network layer data of any network layer
protocol (not just IP) at same time
o ability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the
data field
error detection (no correction)
connection livenes: detect, signal link failure to
network layer
network layer address negotiation: endpoint can
learn/configure each others network address
Lecture 3

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PPP non-requirements

no error correction/recovery
no flow control
out of order delivery OK
no need to support multipoint links
(e.g., polling)

Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering

all relegated to higher layers!!!
Lecture 3

#38

PPP Data Frame

Flag: delimiter (framing)
Address: does nothing (only one option)
Control: does nothing; in the future possible
multiple control fields
Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)

Lecture 3

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PPP Data Frame

info: upper layer data being carried
check: cyclic redundancy check (CRC) for
error detection

Lecture 3

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Byte Stuffing

data transparency requirement: data field must

be allowed to include flag pattern <01111110>
o Q: is received <01111110> data or flag?

Sender: adds (stuffs) extra < 01111101> byte

before each < 01111110> or <01111101> data
byte
Receiver:
o Receive 01111101
discard the byte,
Next byte is data
o Receive 01111110: flag byte
Lecture 3

#41

Byte Stuffing
flag byte
pattern
in data
to send

flag byte pattern plus

stuffed byte in
transmitted data
Lecture 3

#42

PPP Data Control

Before exchangingProtocol
networklayer data, data link peers
must
configure PPP link (max.
frame length,
authentication)
learn/configure network
layer information
o for IP: carry IP Control
Protocol (IPCP) msgs
(protocol field: 8021) to
configure/learn IP
address
Lecture 3

#43

Data Link: Summary

principles behind data link layer
services:
error detection, correction
sharing a broadcast channel: multiple
access
link layer addressing, ARP
various link layer technologies
Ethernet
hubs, bridges, switches
IEEE 802.11 LANs
PPP

Chapter 5 Kurose and Ross

Lecture 3

#44

Configuration Messages:
BPDU

Lecture 3

#45

Serial Implementation of DTE & DCE

When connecting directly to a service provider, or to a
device such as a CSU/DSU that will perform signal clocking,
the router is a DTE and needs a DTE serial cable.
This is typically the case for routers.

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Back-to-Back Serial Connection

When
performing a
back-to-back
router scenario
in a test
environment,
one of the
routers will be a
DTE and the
other will be a
DCE.
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Bridges vs. Routers

both store-and-forward devices

o routers: network layer devices (examine network layer headers)

o bridges are Link Layer devices

routers maintain routing tables, implement routing

algorithms
bridges maintain filtering tables, implement filtering,
learning and spanning tree algorithms

Lecture 3

#48

ISO
ISO - International Organization for
Standardization
ISO researched Different network models
and the result is the OSI-model which was
released in 1984.
Nowadays most vendors build networks
based on the OSI model and hardware
from different vendors is compatible
Slinetworks

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