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Methods of Proof

This document discusses various methods of mathematical proof, including: 1. Direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by contraposition, proof by construction, proof by exhaustion, probabilistic proof, combinatorial proof, nonconstructive proof. 2. It provides examples to illustrate each type of proof, such as using direct proof to show the sum of two even integers is even, and proof by contradiction to show sqrt(2) is irrational. 3. The different proof methods establish conclusions in distinct ways, like direct proof through logical steps, and proof by contradiction showing an assumption leads to a contradiction.

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396 views15 pages

Methods of Proof

This document discusses various methods of mathematical proof, including: 1. Direct proof, proof by contradiction, proof by contraposition, proof by construction, proof by exhaustion, probabilistic proof, combinatorial proof, nonconstructive proof. 2. It provides examples to illustrate each type of proof, such as using direct proof to show the sum of two even integers is even, and proof by contradiction to show sqrt(2) is irrational. 3. The different proof methods establish conclusions in distinct ways, like direct proof through logical steps, and proof by contradiction showing an assumption leads to a contradiction.

Uploaded by

Juna
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Methods of proof

Direct proof
In direct proof, the conclusion is established
by logically combining the axioms,
definitions, and earlier theorems.For
example, direct proof can be used to
establish that the sum of twoevenintegersis
always
even:
Consider two even integersxandy. Since
they are even, they can be written
asx=2aandy=2b, respectively, for
integersaandb. Then the sumx+y=
2a+2b= 2(a+b). Thereforex+yhas 2 as a
factor and, by definition, is even. Hence the
sum of any two even integers is even.
This proof uses the definition of even integers,

roof by mathematical induction


Mathematical induction is not a form of
inductive reasoning. In proof by mathematical
induction, a single "base case" is proved, and
an "induction rule" is proved, which
establishes that a certain caseimpliesthe
next case. Applying the induction rule
repeatedly, starting from the independently
proved base case, proves many, often
infinitelymany, other cases.Since the base
case is true, the infinity of other cases must
also be true, even if all of them cannot be
proved directly because of their infinite
number. A subset of induction is infinite

roof by mathematical induction


A common application of proof by
mathematical induction is to prove that a
property known to hold for one number holds
for all natural numbers:LetN= {1,2,3,4,...}
be the set of natural numbers, andP(n)be a
mathematical statement involving the
natural numbern belonging toNsuch that
(i)P(1)is true, i.e.,P(n)is true forn= 1.
(ii)P(n+1)is true wheneverP(n)is true,
i.e.,P(n)is true implies thatP(n+1)is true.
ThenP(n)is true for all natural
numbersn.

roof by mathematical induction


For example, we can prove by induction that
all integers of the form2n+1are odd:
(i)Forn= 1,2n+1=2(1)+1=3, and3is
odd. ThusP(1)is true. (ii)For2n+1for
somen,2(n+1)+1= (2n+1)+2.
If2n+1is odd, then(2n+1)+2must also
be odd, because adding2to an odd number
results in an odd number. SoP(n+1)is true
ifP(n)is true. Thus2n+1is odd, for all
natural numbersn.
It is common for the phrase "proof by
induction" to be used for a "proof by

Proof by contraposition
Proof by contrapositioninfersthe conclusion
"ifpthenq" from the premise "ifnot
qthennot p". The statement "ifnot
qthennot p" is called the contrapositiveof
the statement "ifpthenq". For example,
contraposition can be used to establish that,
given an integerx, ifx is even, thenxis
even:
Supposexis not even. Thenxis odd. The
product of two odd numbers is odd, hencex
=x xis odd. Thusx is not even.

Proof by contradiction
In proof by contradiction (also known as

reductio ad absurdum, Latin for "by


reduction to the absurd"), it is shown that if
some statement were true, a logical
contradiction occurs, hence the statement
must be false. A famous example of proof
by contradiction shows that is an
irrational number

Proof by contradiction

Suppose that were a rational number, so by


definition , Squaring both sides yields
2b2=a2. Since 2 divides the left hand side, 2
must also divide the right hand side (as they
are equal and both integers). Soa2is even,
which implies thatamust also be even. So we
can writea= 2c, wherecis also an integer.
Substitution into the original equation yields
2b2= (2c)2= 4c2. Dividing both sides by 2
yieldsb2= 2c2. But then, by the same
argument as before, 2 dividesb2, sobmust be
even. However, ifaandbare both even, they
share a factor, namely 2. This contradicts our
assumption, so we are forced to conclude that

Proof by construction
Proof by construction, or proof by example,
is the construction of a concrete example
with a property to show that something
having that property exists.Joseph Liouville,
for instance, proved the existence of
transcendental numbersby constructing an
explicit example. It can also be used to
construct acounterexampleto disprove a
proposition that all elements have a certain
property.

Proof by exhaustion
In proof by exhaustion, the conclusion is
established by dividing it into a finite
number of cases and proving each one
separately. The number of cases
sometimes can become very large. For
example, the first proof of thefour color
theoremwas a proof by exhaustion with
1,936 cases. This proof was controversial
because the majority of the cases were
checked by a computer program, not by
hand. The shortest known proof of the four
color theorem as of 2011still has over 600

Probabilistic proof
A probabilistic proof is one in which an
example is shown to exist, with certainty, by
using methods ofprobability theory.
Probabilistic proof, like proof by
construction, is one of many ways to show
existence theorems.
This is not to be confused with an argument
that a theorem is 'probably' true, a
'plausibility argument'. The work on the
Collatz conjectureshows how far plausibility
is from genuine proof

Combinatorial proof
A combinatorial proof establishes the
equivalence of different expressions by
showing that they count the same object in
different ways. Often a bijection between
two sets is used to show that the
expressions for their two sizes are equal.
Alternatively, adouble counting argument
provides two different expressions for the
size of a single set, again showing that the
two expressions are equal.

Nonconstructive proof

A nonconstructive proof establishes that a


mathematical objectwith a certain property
exists without explaining how such an object
can be found. Often, this takes the form of a
proof by contradiction in which the
nonexistence of the object is proved to be
impossible. In contrast, a constructive proof
establishes that a particular object exists by
providing a method of finding it. A famous
example of a nonconstructive proof shows that
there exist twoirrational numbers
aandbsuch that abis arational number:

Nonconstructive proof

Either is a rational number and we are done


(take a = b = , or is irrational so we can
write and . This then gives = 2, which is
thus a rational of the form ab

atistical proofs in pure mathematics


The expression "statistical proof" may be
used technically or colloquially in areas of
pure mathematics, such as involving
cryptography,chaotic series, and
probabilistic or analyticnumber theory.It is
less commonly used to refer to a
mathematical proof in the branch of
mathematics known as
mathematical statistics.

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