Sound Propagation
AnImpedanceBasedApproach
Chapter 1
Vibration and Waves
Yang-HannKim
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
Outline
1.1 Introduction/Study Objectives
1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
1.4 Specific Impedance(Reflection and Transmission)
1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point Impedance
1.7 Wave Energy Propagation along a String
1.8 Chapter Summary
1.9 Essentials of Vibration and Waves
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
1.1 Introduction/Study Objectives
Vibration can be considered as a special form of a wave (wave
propagations, Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1 The first, second, and third modes of a string (demonstration by C.-S. Park and S.-H. Lee, 2005, at
KAIST)
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
To understand how a wave propagates in space, let us start with
the simplest case.
Figure 1.2 Vibration of a string fixed at both ends (this demonstrates that the vibration can be expressed as
the sum of two modes: the second and third modes of the string)
Figure 1.2 shows how two sinusoidal vibrations, whose frequencies
are
f2 and f3, are actually composed of two different vibrations,
that is, modes. This can be mathematically expressed as
y ( x, t ) A2 sin
2 x
3 x
sin 2 f 2t A3 sin
sin 2 f 3t ,
L
L
(1.1)
where represents the phase difference between the second and
third modes that are participating in the vibration.
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
There is also a phase difference in space, as demonstrated by
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 How the second and third modes create the vibration
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
The first term of Equation 1.1 can be rewritten as
A2 sin
1
2 x
2 x
2 x
2 f 2t cos
2 f 2t
sin 2 f 2t A2 cos
2
L
L
(1.2)
Rearranging this equation in termsxof x gives
1
2
L
2
L
2 x
t cos x
A2 sin
sin(2 f 2t ) A2 cos
x
t
2
L
(1/ f 2 )
L
(1 / f 2 )
L
(1.3)
where LL/(1/
indicates a velocity that travels along the string.
/ (1 / ff2)
2)
Equation 1.3 essentially means that there are two waves
propagating along the string in opposite directions
a velocity
L / Twith
2 (T2 1 / f 2 )
of
.
n
Similarly, the first or even
th mode can be interpreted in the
same manner as for the second and third mode cases.
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
The string vibration can generally be written as
y ( x, t ) An sin
n 1
n
x sin 2 f nt n ,
L
(1.4)
where nis the phase of the nth mode.
If we rewrite Equation 1.4 with respect to x, then
1
n
2L
n
n
2L
n
y ( x, t ) An cos x
t
cos
x
.
L
nTn
( n / L)
L
nTn
( n / L)
n 1 2
(1.5)
This equation essentially states the following: There are cosine
waves propagating in the positive (+) and negative () directions
with respect to space, x.
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
The general wave form, which is not simply a cosine wave, can
be mathematically expressed as
y ( x, t ) g x ct h x ct ,
(1.6)
where g() and h() generally denote a wave form.
Note that a wave g or h essentially depicts a wave form in
arbitrary space and time.
These also propagate in space and time with the relation x+ct or
xct.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
Figure 1.4 demonstrates how the function g moves along the axis x
with time. With respect to the x coordinate, we can now see how it
changes in time with respect to space.
Figure 1.4 The wave propagates in the positive
( ) x (+) direction; g expresses the shape of the wave, c the wave
x and t and x are the time and coordinate
t speed,
propagation
If we rewrite the function or wave g with regard to time, then we
obtain
g x ct g c t .
c
(1.7)
Equation 1.7 states that the right-going wave in space can be seen
as the wave propagates in time.
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
Figure 1.5 essentially illustrates that what we can see in space is
related to what we observe in time; this graph is typically
referred to as a wave diagram.
Figure 1.5 Wave diagram: waves can be observed at the x coordinate (space) and t axis (time), where t
x1,2 infinitesimal
t1,2
denotes
time,
and
indicates arbitrary position and time, and y is the wave amplitude
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
The sine wave is a special wave that can be expressed by Equation
1.7. The sine wave, propagating to the right, is expressed
y x, t Y sin k x ct
(1.8)
where k converts the units of the independent variable of the sine
function to radians; x and ct are in units of length; Y represents
amplitude and is an arbitrary phase.
We rewrite Equation 1.8 as
y ( x, t ) Y sin kx kct Y sin kx t ,
(1.9)
where kc .
It relates the variable that expresses the changes of space (x), k,
with that related to time (t), . That is,
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(1.10)
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
Equation 1.10 can be rewritten in terms of frequency (cycles/sec,
Hz), or period (sec), that is
k
2 f
1
2
.
c
c
cT
(1.11)
We can rewrite Equation 1.11 as
k
2
,
1/ (
where k represents the number of waves per unit length
call this the wave number or a propagation constant.
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(1.12)
). We
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
Note that the distance across which a wave travels for a period T
with a propagation speed c will be a wavelength () (see Figure
1.6).
Figure 1.6 Waves can be seen for one period: T is period (sec), c is propagation speed (m/sec), and x and t
represent the space and time axis, respectively
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1.2 From String Vibration to Wave
We can also obtain an additional relation from Equations 1.10
and 1.12. That is,
c
.
(1.13)
f
f time (f
This states that the variables which express space
() and
) are not independent of each other. dispersion relation
By using a complex function, Equation 1.9 can be rewritten as
y ( x, t ) Im Ye j kx t Im Ye j kx t ,
where Y is the complex amplitude.
For the sake of simplicity, Equation 1.14 will be written as
y ( x, t ) Ye
(1.14)
j kx t
(1.15)
We can also express Equation 1.15 with respect to time instead
of space, that is
j t kx
y ( x, t ) Ye
.
(1.16)
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1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
Any one-dimensional wave can be expressed as
y ( x, t ) g x ct h x ct .
(1.17)
We would like to determine the derivative of Equation 1.17 with
regard to time and space and thereby examine its underlying
physical meaning.
y
Lets see how Equation 1.17
behaves in the case of a (1.18)
small
g ' h ',
x
spatial change:
'
g ( z ) ' dg / dz
wheredenotes the derivative
of each function with respect to its
y
cg ' ch ' ). Its time rate of change
(1.19)
arguments (e.g.,
is
t
expressed as
which leads to
g
g
cg ' c ,
t
x
h
h
ch ' c .
t
x
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(1.20)
(1.21)
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1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
Figure 1.7 illustrates the associated kinematics of the right-going
and left-going wave.
Figure 1.7 Understanding waves from the perspective of wave kinematics (a wave that has a positive slope or negative slope
has a negative or positive rate of change, i.e., velocity)
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1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
If we differentiate Equations 1.20 and 1.21, we obtain
2
2 g
2 g
c
,
2
2
t
x
h
2 h
c
.
2
2
t
x
2
Any one-dimensional wavey ((x, t ) ) which has left-going and rightgoing waves with respect to the selected coordinates satisfies
the partial differential equation:
2
2 y
2 y
c
.
2
2
t
x
(1.22)
(1.23)
Equation 1.23 can then be rewritten as
2 y 1 2 y
2 2.
2
x
c t
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(1.24)
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1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
A three-dimensional version of Equation 1.24 can be written as
1 2
2 2,
c t
2
(1.25)
where ( x, y, z , t )
denotes the amplitude of three-dimensional
wave.
The boundary condition can generally be written as
,
x
(1.26)
where expresses the general force acting on the boundary.
and are coefficients that are proportional to force and spatial
change of force, respectively.
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1.3 One-dimensional Wave Equation
Two types of boundary conditions: passive and active
Figure 1.8 Examples of passive and active boundary conditions
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1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
Waves traveling along a string are representative of the many
possible one-dimensional waves.
Let us first examine waves propagating along two different
strings, as illustrated in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9 Waves in two strings of different thickness (g1 is an incident wave, h1 represents a reflected wave, and g2 is a
transmitted wave)
We wish to determine the relation between the incident wave g1,
the reflected wave h1 and the transmitted wave g2.
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1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
Lets envisage what really happens at this discontinuity, and then
express it mathematically.
The velocities in the y direction (uy) of the thin string and thick
string have to be identical. In addition, the resultant force in the y
direction (fy) has to be balanced according to Newtons second
law. These two requirements at the discontinuity are expressed
mathematically as
u y
u y
,
(1.27)
x 0
x 0
f y
x 0
f y
x 0
0.
(1.28)
Denote the waves on the negative x axis region, #1 string, as y1
and express the wave that propagates in the positive x axis as y2.
Describing these waves with
to
x regard
x time, they can be written
y1 g1 t h1 t ,
(1.29)
as
c
c
x
y2 g 2 t .
c2
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(1.30)
21
1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
x at
0
The velocity in the y direction
u y
At x 0 , it is
x 0
u y
y1
t
x 0
x 0
y2
t
x 0
x 0
g 2'
h1 '
x 0
x 0
(1.31)
(1.32)
f y ( ) are related to the tension along
The forces in the y direction
TL string
the
a and the slope (Figure 1.10) as
f y
g1'
We therefore obtain the following equality since the velocity must
be continuous:
g1'
h1'
g 2'
.
(1.33)
x 0
x 0
x 0
can be written as
x 0
TL
y
,
x
f y
x 0
TL
y
.
x
(1.34)
Therefore, we can rewrite Equation 1.28 as
TL '
g1
c1
x0
TL '
h1
c1
x 0
TL '
g 2
c2
x 0
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(1.35)
22
1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
Figure 1.10 Forces acting on the end of the string where TL is tension, fy describes the force in the y direction, y
indicates the amplitude of the string, and x denotes the coordinate)
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1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
x 0, at
t 0
We can postulate that the strings wave amplitude
is zero. We can therefore write Equations 1.33 and 1.35 as
g '1 0 h '1 0 g '2 0 ,
TL
T
T
g '1 0 L h '1 0 L g '2 0 .
c1
c1
c2
uy
(1.37)
The ratio of the strings force iny the y direction (fy) and the
associated velocity (uy) can be written as
fy
(1.36)
TL
.
c
(1.38)
The force that can generate the unit velocity is generally defined
as the impedance.
We normally express this using the complex function Z, which
allows us to express any possible phase difference between the
force and velocity. Therefore, Equation 1.37 can be rewritten as
Z1 g '1 0 Z1h '1 0 Z 2 g '2 0
(1.39)
TL / c1
TL / c2
where
Z
and
Z
are
equal
to
and
, respectively.
2 ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
Sound Propagation: An 1Impedance Based
24
1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
Using Equations 1.36 and 1.39, the reflection ratio (h1/g1) can be
expressed as
h1 0 Z1 Z 2
.
g1 0 Z1 Z 2
The transmission ratio (h1/g1) can be written as
g2 0
2 Z1
.
g1 0 Z1 Z 2
(1.40)
(1.41)
The ratio of the reflected wave and transmitted wave to the
L /c
incident wave depends entirely on the T
strings
impedance,
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1.4 Specific Impedance (Reflection &
Transmission)
Figure 1.11 exhibits how the waves on a string propagate when
they meet a change of impedance or, in this case, a change of
thickness of string.
Figure 1.11 Incident, reflected, and transmitted waves on a string; note the phase changes of the reflected
Z1 thin line has impedance
Z 2 the thick line has
and transmitted waves compared to the incident wave. The
and
impedance
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1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
Let us examine an infinitesimal element of string (Figure 1.12).
Figure 1.12 Newtons second law on an infinitesimal element of a string (notation as for Figure 1.10)
Newtons second law in the x direction can be written:
2 x
TL cos TL dTL cos d L ds 2 .
t
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(1.42)
27
1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
The force and motion in the y direction can be written:
2 y
TL sin TL dTL sin d L ds 2 ,
t
(1.43)
where expresses the slope of the string with respect to the x
axis at an arbitrary position of x:
tan
y
.
x
The change of this slope with regard to a small changedxin x ( )
can be written as
y 2 y
d 2 dx
x x
(1.44)
(1.45)
using a Taylor expansion.
Assuming that the displacement of the string is small enough to
be linearized, then
sin ,
(1.46)
cos 1.
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1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
Equations 1.42 and 1.43 thus become
The smallds
2 x
TL TL dTL L ds 2 ,
t
(1.47)
y 2 y
y
2 y
TL TL dTL
2 dx L ds 2 .
x
x
x
t
(1.48)
can be rewritten as
ds
dx
dy
y
1 y
dx 1 dx 1
x
2 x
(1.49)
Its square can therefore be neglected compared to other
variables. Therefore, we can approximate
(1.50)
ds dx.
The small change of tensiondTL can be expressed by a first-order
approximation as
T
dTL L dx.
(1.51)
x
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1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
Equation 1.47 can be rewritten as
TL
2 x
L 2 .
x
t
(1.52)
We can easily write Equation 1.48 as
2 y
2 y
TL 2 L 2 .
x
t
(1.53)
Rearranging Equation 1.53 results in
2 y L 2 y
.
x 2 TL t 2
(1.54)
Equation 1.54 can be summarized as
2 y 1 2 y
,
x 2 cs2 t 2
cs2
TL
.
L
(1.55)
(1.56)
where cs is the propagation speed of the string.
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1.5 The Governing Equation of a String
Z
Recall that the impedance of the string
Z=
is
TL
.
cs
Using Equation 1.56, we can rewrite Equation 1.57 as
Z = L cs .
(1.57)
(1.58)
Impedance has two different implications.
- The impedance is a measure of how effectively the force can
generate velocity (response), that is, the input and output
relation between force and velocity.
- The impedance represents the characteristics of the medium.
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1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
We first investigate what happens if we harmonically excite one
end of a semi-infinite string.
cs
Figure 1.13 Wave propagation by harmonically exciting one end of a semi-infinite string
(T is period,
is
propagation speed, is the wavelength, f is the frequency in Hz (cycles/sec), and is the radian frequency in
rad/sec)
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1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
For mathematical convenience, we begin by expressing the
waves in Figure 1.13 using a complex function:
y x , t g x cs t .
The boundary condition xat 0
can be written as
y 0, t g cst Ye jt ,
(1.60)
jt
jt
Y
e
where
denotes the response of the string due toFethe
x 0.
excitation
(
) at
We can therefore rewrite Equation 1.60 as
g cst Ye
(1.59)
jk cs t
(1.61)
k / cs
where we use the dispersion relation
.
If we rearrange Equation 1.61 using an independent variable
,
then we obtain
(1.62)
g Ye jk .
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1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
cs t
We can therefore substitute x by
g x cst Ye
Ye
y
t
(1.63)
x 0
(1.64)
The force at the end of the string is related to the tension and the
slope of string (Figure 1.10):
y
x
.
x 0
(1.65)
We can rewrite the impedance at the end as
Z m0
j Ye jt .
f y 0, t = Fe jt TL
j t kx
The velocity can be expressed using Equation 1.60:
uy 0, t
jk x cs t
, which gives us
f y 0, t
uy 0, t
L cs .
(1.66)
The characteristics of the driving point impedance determine the
spatial phenomenon of wave propagation, that is, the ways in
which waves propagate in space.
34
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
Another extreme case that can demonstrate how the driving
point impedance reflects the wave propagation along a string is a
string that has finite length L.
One end (x=0) is harmonically excited and the other end (x=L) is
fixed.
y x, t
The boundary condition at x=L requires that the displacement
y(x,t) always be 0. The solution that satisfies the governing wave
equation and this boundary
condition
jt
y x, t Y sin
k L x e can
. be written as
(1.67)
x0
If we calculate the velocityyusing
Equation 1.67
at x =0, then we
jt
u y 0, t
j Y sin kL e .
(1.68)
x 0
have
x0
f y 0, t = TL
The force at x=0 is
y
x
TL kY cos kL e jt .
x 0
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(1.69)
35
1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
Equations 1.68 and 1.69 give us the impedance (specifically, the
x 0Zm0) at
driving point impedance
. That is,
Z m0
f y 0, t
u y 0, t
TL
cot kL j L cs cot kL.
cs
When the wavelength is large compared to the length of the
string, then Equation 1.70 reduces to
Z m 0 j L cs
1
.
kL
(1.71)
Rearranging this equation, we obtain
Zm0 j
(1.70)
TL
.
L
(1.72)
Driving point impedance represents how much force is required
to obtain unit velocity, or how much velocity will be generated by
a unit force at the point of interest.
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1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
Figure 1.14 The driving point impedance of a finite string (k is wave number and L is the length of the string)
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1.6 Forced Response of a String: Driving Point
Impedance
Summary of Driving point impedances
Table 1.1 Driving point impedances
Nomenclature: L : mass per unit length of string, rod; A : mass per unit area of membrane; : mass per volume of plate; P:
cb Y / ; c p Y;
/ :(1angular
p2 ) frequency; k : wavenumber; L : length of
Poissons ratio; cs : speed of propagation of string;
string, rod, and bar; Y : Youngs modulus; S : cross-sectional area of rod and beam; : radius of gyration of beam and plate; d:
on
cbfrequency);
thickness of plate; Tm : membrane tension (N/m); vb : propagation speed of bar (=
, depending
vp :
M
c p
Z
m
0
propagation speed of plate (aaaaaaa
, depending on frequency); : driving point impedance by bending moment of beam;
:
Z mF0
driving point impedance by shear force of beam and plate.
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1.7 Wave Energy Propagation along a String
Lets determine how much energy can be stored in an
infinitesimal element of string.
Figure 1.15 The change of an infinitesimal element of a string in infinitesimal time
The kinetic and potential energy in the infinitesimal element of
the string can be written
2
dEP TL
1
y
dEK L dx ,
2
t
dx
dy
(1.73)
2
1
y
dx TL dx ,
2
x
(1.74)
where d expresses a small element.
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1.7 Wave Energy Propagation along a String
The total energy of the string can be written
1
y
y
dE L TL
2
t
x
2
(1.75)
dE
.
dx
(1.76)
The total energy in the string can be written as
E
dx.
Energy density can be expressed by
1
dx L cs2
2
y 2 1 y 2
dx.
cs t
x
(1.77)
Equation 1.77 demonstrates that the greater the slope along the
x
string (with regard
to
) and the faster the speed of wave
propagation, the more energy we have.
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1.7 Wave Energy Propagation along a String
Consider that we raise one end of the string (see Figure 1.16).
1
2
L cE u y2
2
The kinetic energy can be approximated as
1 u y
TL cE
2 cE
The potential energy is
; this can be readily obtained by
the work done due to the elongation of string.
Figure 1.16 Energy propagates along a string by raising Tone
end (
L
u
propagation
time, and
lifting velocity at the end)
y speed,
cE the string,
is tension along
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energy
41
1.7 Wave Energy Propagation along a String
These lead to the equation:
2
1
1 u
TL u y L cE u y2 TL y cE ,
cE
2
2 cE
uy
which gives us
cE2
TL
.
L
(1.78)
(1.79)
The speed of energy propagation is identical to the phase
velocity of a string.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
42
1.8 Chapter Summary
We have studied wave propagation along a piece of string, which
is a typical one-dimensional wave.
A wave is an expression of a spacetime relation.
A harmonic wave solution gives us the dispersion relation, which
determines the relation between wave number and frequency
and is determined by the characteristics of the medium.
The ways in which waves are reflected and transmitted are
completely determined by the characteristic impedances of two
strings, which create an impedance mismatch between the
strings.
The driving point impedance represents how the waves on a
string propagate.
Sound Propagation: An Impedance Based ApproachYang-HannKim2010JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd
43
