In design of high rise building the

lateral forces like earthquake and

wind is mainly critical due to height
of the structure.
To resist lateral forces efficient
lateral load resisting systems are
required.

 DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL
SYSTEM DEPENDS ON
MATERIALS
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
SERVICES SYSTEMS
USE OF BUILDING

TIMBERS
BRICKS
IN 1891, 16 STORIED MONADNOCK BUILDING IN
CHICAGO, 2 meter THICK WALL

 Demand for space was increased

Structurally more efficient materials was
innovated - wrought iron & steel
1931, 102 storied (381 meter height)
EMPIRE STATE building of structural
system braced steel frame was constructed
At the same time tallest RCC building was
exchange building in Seattle of 23 storey

 In 1960, shear wall concept was started in

RCC building as lateral load resisting system.
Introduction of shear wall made a major
change in rcc high rise buildings.
Shear wall made the RCC multistoried
building, free from 20 to 25 storey height
limitations of rigid frame.
After the development of high strength
concrete, the high rise structure like
PETRONAS TOWER was constructed with
structural system shear wall and rigid frame.

C16

C1

C15

C2

C14

C3

85 LVL.
82 LVL.

46.2m

TOTAL COLUMNS INC4

EACH MAIN TOWER
C12 = 16
C5
TOTAL COLUMNS IN
C6
C11
EACH BUSTLE = 12
C10
C7
CENTER TO CENTER
DISTANCE BETWEEN
COLUMNS
20.4m
C13

72 LVL.
9.07m
(IN CURVE)

5.34m

(IN CURVE)

TYPICAL COLUMN & BEAM LAYOUT

SECTION X-X

60 LVL.

Shear Wall
Shear wall structure is considered to
one whose resistance to horizontal
loading is provided entirely by shear
walls.

The walls may be part of service core

or a stairwell, or they may serve as
partitions between accommodation.

It has high in plane stiffness and

strength.
Shear walls comprise the vertical
elements in the lateral force resisting
system for many structures.

Definition
Shear walls are essentially columns with a
large depth and a small width .
A shear wall is essentially a deep, thin
cantilevered beam projecting from the
foundation that is subjected to one or
more lateral forces, such as those due to
wind or seismic activity.

Need of shear wall

Shear wall is a structural element used to resist
lateral forces parallel to the plane of the wall by:
Cantilever action for slender walls where the
bending deformation is dominant.
Truss action for squat/short walls where the
shear deformation is dominant.
They support the horizontal diaphragms and
transfer the resultant forces from the applied
lateral loads into the foundation.

 What are the two functions of a shear wall?

Strength and Stiffness

Strength
Shear walls must provide the necessary lateral
strength to resist horizontal earthquake forces.
When shear walls are strong enough, they will
transfer these horizontal forces to the next element
in the load path below them, such as other shear
walls, floors, foundation walls, slabs or footings.
Stiffness
Shear walls also provide lateral stiffness to prevent
the roof or floor above from excessive side-sway.
When shear walls are stiff enough, they will prevent
floor and roof framing members from moving off their
supports.
Also, buildings that are sufficiently stiff will usually
suffer less nonstructural damage.

Performance Objectives
Resist axial forces, flexure and shear
Boundary members
Where compression strains are large,
maintain capacity

Discontinuous walls: supporting columns

have full confinement

Typical Layout of Building with

shear wall

Failures in shear wall

Points To Be Considered In Planning of

Shear Wall
Individual walls may be subjected to
axial, translation & torsion
displacements. The extent to which a
wall contribute to the resistance of
overturning moments, storey shear
forces & storey torsion depends on its
geometric configuration , orientation &
location within a plane of building.

Cont..
The position of the structural walls within a
building are usually dictated by functional
requirements,
The purpose of the building , the consequent
location of floor space , building site ,
architectural interest , clients desires -- these
all points lead to the planning of shear wall.
The major structural considerations for
individual structural walls will be aspects of
symmetry in stiffness ,torsional stability &
available overturning capacity of foundation.

 In following wall arrangements it is seen that torsional

resistance could only be achieved if the lateral force
resistance of each wall with respect to its weak axis was
significant. As this is not the case , these examples
represent torsionally unstable systems.
In the following cases of arrangement, computations
may show no eccentricity of inertia forces. However,
these systems will not accommodate torsion, due to
accidental torsion.

 In following case of arrangement, where significant

eccentricity is present, torsional resistance can be
efficiently provided by the actions induced in the plane of
the short walls. However, eccentric systems, are
particular examples that should not be favored in ductile
earthquake-resisting buildings unless additional lateral
force resisting systems, such as ductile frame are also
present.

Types of shear wall

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Classified based upon the different

criteria:
Shape
Dimension
Opening
Combination with other element
Material

Based upon Shape

1. Rectangular
2. Dumbeled
3. Intersection of two
shear walls

Dimension
IF h/L<1 then it is called as Squat
IF h/L>1 then it is called as slender
L

L
h

Based on Material

Concrete
Steel
Composite
Wooden

Steel
Where force levels exceed those permitted in all other
materials or where dimensional constraints limit the
width of shear walls, steel plate shear walls are used.

Composite
It consist of steel plate with reinforced concrete walls
attached to one side or both sides using mechanical
connectors such as shear studs or bolts.

Wooden
Timber structures have a good track record of
performance in major earthquakes
Their low mass and good damping characteristics
help achieve this.

COMBINATION WITH OTHER ELEMENT

Wall frame structure:

Opening
Solid

With opening

 Coupled shear wall

Categorization based on behavior.

A tall shear wall structure comprises of shear
walls whose lengths and thickness may change
or which may be discontinued, at stages up the
height. The effects of such variations can be a
complex redistribution of the moment and
shears between the walls, with associated
horizontal interaction forces in the connecting
girder and slabs. As an aid to understanding the
behavior of shear wall structures, it is useful to
categorize them as proportionate and non
proportionate system.

Proportionate shear wall

A proportionate system is
one in which the ratios of
the flexural rigidities of the
wall remain constant
throughout their height

Non-proportionate shear wall

In non proportionate
system the ratios of
the flexural rigidities
of the wall are not
remain constant
throughout their
height.

I1 A I1B I1C

I 2 A I 2 B I 2C

Shear Wall and Frame

Shear Wall Behavior

Frame Behavior

 BEHAVIOR OF SHEAR WALL

 Shear Wall Deform

Essentially in bending mode.
Shear deformations are rarely significant.
Only very low shear walls with H/W ratio <1
fail in shear.
Behave mostly like a slender cantilever.
Designed to resist the combined effect of
axial, bending and shear.

Behavior of Shear Wall

A building with shear walls at
its ends. Ground motion
enters the building and
creates inertial forces which
move the floor diaphragms.
This movement is resisted
by the shear walls, and the
forces are transmitted back
down to the foundation.

 A single cantilever shear wall can be expected to

behave essentially in the same way as a
reinforced cantilever beam.
The shear wall as a large cantilever, will be
subjected to bending moments and shear forces
originating largely from lateral loads & axial
compression caused by gravity.
The vertical or flexural reinforcement in the web
portion of a shear wall which can be
considerable, should be taken into account when
assessing the flexural capacity.

Structural Behavior Slender Walls

Structural Behavior Walls-Squat wall

Shear Wall and Frame Interaction

Factors influencing structural

response of walls

Height-to-width ratio.
Types of loading.
Flexural reinforcement.
Shear reinforcement.
Diagonal reinforcement.
Special transverse reinforcement.
Concrete strength.
Section shape.
Axial compressive stress.
Construction joints.

Advantages
Shear walls are efficient, both in terms of construction cost
and effectiveness in minimizing earthquake damage in
structural and non-structural elements (like glass windows
and building contents).
Shear walls are easy to construct, because reinforcement
detailing of walls is relatively straight-forward and therefore
easily implemented at site.
Its acts as excellent acoustics and fire insulators between
rooms.
For low-to medium-rise buildings, shear walls are combined
with frame, so frame is to be designed for gravity loading only.
Well detailed reinforced concrete will develop about twice as
much as damping as structural steel.
High strength concrete will reduce thickness of the wall. So
maximizing floor space.

Disadvantages
Shear walls solid form tends to restrict planning where
open internal spaces are required.
Torsion and flexural rigidity is affected significantly by the
number and size of openings around the shear wall.
Shear walls vertical movement will continue throughout the
life of the building. So their impact on system must be
evaluated at the design stage.

General Requirements
For axial load and
flexure, design like a
column to determine
axial load moment
interaction

Design Philosophy
Flexural yielding will occur in predetermined
flexural hinging regions
Brittle failure mechanisms will be precluded
Diagonal tension
Sliding hinges
Local buckling

Stresses Consider during Design

Bending stresses.
Shear stresses.
Warping stresses due to earthquake and
wind Load.
Stresses due to Gravity loads.

Design Criteria As Per IS 13920:1993

Cl.9.1-GENERAL REQUIRMENTS
Cl.9.2-SHEAR STRENGTH
Cl.9.3-FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Cl.9.4-BOUNDARY ELEMENTS
Cl.9.5-COUPLED SHEARWALLS
Cl.9.6-OPENING IN WALLS
Cl.9.7-DISCONTINUOUS WALLS
Cl.9.8-CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Cl.9.9-DEVELOPMENT, SPLICE AND
ANCHORAGE REQ.(DETAILING RELATED)

9.1 General Requirement

Thickness<150 mm.

In case of coupled shear

walls, the thickness of
wall shall be at least 200
mm.

To avoid unusually thin

sec. Very thin sections
are susceptible to lateral
instability in zones where
inelastic cyclic loading
may have to sustained.

Clause. 9.1.3
The effective flange width,
to be used in the design of
flanged wall sections, shall
be assumed to extend
beyond the face of the web
for a distance which shall
be the smaller of
(a) half the distance to an
adjacent shear
wall web, and
(b) 1/10th of the total wall
height.

Effective width of a flanged wall

section

Clause.9.1.4
Shear walls shall be provided
with reinforcement in the
longitudinal and transverse
directions in the plane of the
wall.
The minimum reinforcement
ratio shall be 0.0025 of the
gross area in each direction.
This reinforcement shall be
distributed uniformly across
the cross section of the wall.

Distribution of a
minimum reinforcement
uniformly across the
height and width of the
wall helps to control the
width of inclined cracks
that are caused due to
shear.

Clause.9.1.5
If the factored shear stress
in the wall exceeds 0.25
*(fck )1/2 or if the wall
thickness
exceeds 200 mm,
reinforcement shall be
provided in two curtains,
each having bars running
in the longitudinal and
transverse directions in the
plane of the wall.

The use of two curtains of

reinforcement willreduce
fragmentation and premature
deterioration of the concrete
under cyclic loading into the
inelastic range.

Clause.9.1.6
The diameter of the
This is to prevent the
bars to be used in any
use of very large
diameter bars in thin
part of the wall shall
wall sections.
not exceed 1/10th of
the thickness of that
part.

Clause.9.1.7
The maximum spacing of
reinforcement in either
direction shall not exceed
the smaller of lw/5, 3tw,
and 450 mm; where lw is
the horizontal length of
the wall, and tw is the
thickness of the wall web.

This clause is similar to

spacing requirements of
slabs.

Clause.9.2-Shear Strength
Clause.9.2.1

The nominal shear stress, Tv shall

be calculated as:

Vu
v
twd w
where
Vu = factored shear force,
tw = thickness of the web, and
dw = effective depth of wall section.
This may by be taken as 0.8 lw, for
rectangular section.

Shear strength provisions are very

similar to those of beams. The
vertical reinforcement that is
provided in the wall shall be
considered for calculation of the
design shear stress as per Table
19 of IS 456: 2000. The increase
in shear strength due to axial
compression may also be
considered as per clause 40.2.2 of
IS 456: 2000. However, for this,
only 80% of the factored axial
compressive force should be
considered as effective. This is to
consider possible effect of vertical
acceleration. Effective depth of
wall is taken as 0.8 times the
actual depth of the wall, and
flanges are not taken into
account for shear capacity.

Clause.9.2.2
The design shear strength of concrete, c,
shall be calculated as per Table 19 of
IS 456 : 2000.

Clause.9.2.3
The nominal shear stress in the wall, v,shall
not exceed c, max, as per Table 20 of
IS 456: 2000.

Clause.9.2.4
When Tv is less than Tc shear
reinforcement shall be provided in
accordance with 9.1.4,9.1.5 and 9.1.7.

Clause.9.2.5
When v is greater than c, the area of
horizontal shear reinforcement, Ah, to be
provided within a vertical spacing, Sv is given
0.87 f y Ah d w
By,

Vus

Sv

where Vus = (Vu c tw dw), is the shear force

to be resisted by the horizontal reinforcement. However,
the amount of horizontal reinforcement provided shall not
be less than the minimum, as per 9.1.4.

Clause.9.2.6

The vertical reinforcement, that is

uniformly
distributed in the wall
shall not be less than the
horizontal reinforcement calculated
as per 9.2.5.

This provision is particularly

important for squat walls. When
the height-to-width ratio is about
1.0, vertical and horizontal
reinforcement are equally
effective in resisting the shear
force.
However, for walls with heightto-width ratio less than 1.0, a
major part of the shear force is
resisted by the vertical
reinforcement. Hence, adequate
vertical reinforcement should be
provided for
such walls.

Clause.9.3- Flexural Strength

The moment of
resistance, Muv, of the
wall section may be
calculated as for columns
subjected to combined
bending and axial load as
per IS 456: 2000. The
moment of resistance of
slender rectangular shear
wall section with uniformly
distributed vertical
reinforcement is given in
Annex A.

The equations in Annex A are

derived assuming a rectangular
wall section of depth lw and
thickness tw that is subjected to
combined uni-axial bending and
axial compression. The vertical
reinforcements represented by an
equivalent steel plate along the
length of the section. The stress
strain curve assumed for concrete
is as per IS 456:2000 whereas
that for steel is assumed to be bilinear. Two equations are given for
calculating the flexural strength of
the section. Their use depends on
whether the section fails in flexural
tension or in flexural compression.

Flexural strength of Rectangular wall

Cont..
FORCE

LEVER ARM

Cc = 0.36 fck Xu tw

lw - 0.416 Xu

C1 = 0.87 fy tw Xu (1-)

lw -0.5 Xu (1-)

C2 = 0.435 fy tw xu

lw - Xu (1 - 2/3 )

T1 = 0.435 fy tw xu

lw Xu (1 + 2/3 )

T2 = 0.87 fy tw [lw-Xu(1+)] 0.5 [ lw - Xu(1-)]

Pu

0.5 lw

Cont..
(a) Flexural tension failure:
*
Xu Xu

As per the strain diagram.

lw
lw
M uo
Xu
Xu 2
1
2
[(1 )( 0.416
) ( ) (0.168
)]
2
2
lw
lw
3
f ck t w l w

Where,
Xu

(
)
lw
2 0.36

X*
(
lw

0.0035
fy
0.0035 0.87
Es

Cont..
0.87 fy
(
)
f ck

Pu
(
)
f ck t w l w

Ast

t wl w

Where,
Ast = area of uniformly distributed vertical reinforcement
=0.87fy/(0.0035Es)

(b) Flexural compression failure:

For this condition, the strain in the tension steel
at the extreme fiber will be less than the yield strain.
Thus tension steel does not yield. So T2 is not
considered
X u*
Xu

,1.0
lw
lw

M uo
Xu
Xu 2

1 (
) 2(
) 3
f ck t w l w
lw
lw
2

1
1 [0.36 (1
)]
2 2

2
1
2 [0.15 (1

)]
2
2
2 3

1
3
[
3]
6 X u l w

Cont..

Cont..
The value of Xu/lw can be calculated from:
Where,
Xu 2
Xu
1 ( ) 4 ( ) 5 0
lw
lw

4 ( )

5 ( )
2

Clause.9.3.3
In walls that do not have
boundary elements,
vertical reinforcement
shall be concentrated
at the ends of the wall.
Each concentration
shall consist of a
minimum of 4 bars of 12
mm diameter arranged
in at least 2 layers.

Concentrated vertical
reinforcement near
the edges of the wall
is more effective in
resisting bending
moment.

Clause.9.4-Boundary Elements
Boundary elements are
portions along the wall edges
that are strengthened by
longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement. Though they
may have the same
thickness as that of the wall
web it is advantageous to
provide them with greater
thickness.

Wall sections having stiff

and well confined
boundary elements
develop substantial
flexural strength, are less
susceptible to lateral
buckling, and have better
shear strength and
ductility in comparison
plane rectangular walls
not having stiff and wellconfined boundary
elements.

Boundary Elements

Clause.9.4.1

Where the extreme fibre

compressive stress in the wall
due to factored gravity loads
plus factored earthquake force
exceeds 0.2fck, boundary
elements shall be provided
along the vertical boundaries
of walls. The boundary
elements may be discontinued
where the calculated
compressive stress becomes
less than 0.15fck. The
compressive stress shall be
calculated using a linearly
elastic model and gross
section properties.

During a severe earthquake,

the ends of a wall are
subjected to high compressive
and tensile stresses. Hence,
the concrete needs to be well
confined so as to sustain the
load reversals without a large
degradation in strength.

Clause.9.4.2

A boundary element shall have adequate

axial load carrying capacity, assuming
short column action, so as to enable it to
carry anaxial compression equal to the
sum of factored gravity load on it and the
additional compressive load induced by
the seismic force. The later may be
calculated as:

Mu= factored design moment on the

entire wall section,
Muv= moment of resistance provided by
distributed vertical reinforcement across
the wall section, and
Cw= center to center distance between
the boundary elements along the two
vertical edges of the wall.

The boundary element is assumed

to be effective in resisting the
design moment due to earthquake
induced forces along with the web
of the wall. The axial compression
that is required to be developed in
the boundary element for this
purpose is given by (Mu-Muv)/Cw.
Thus, the boundary element
should be designed as a short
column for an axial load equal to
the sum of the above axial
compression and the gravity load
on it. The factored gravity load on
a boundary element may be taken
as the fraction of the gravity load
in proportion to its cross-sectional
area, unless more accurate
calculations are carried out.

Clause.9.4.3

If the gravity load adds to the

strength of the wall, its load factor
shall be taken as 0.8.

Moderate axial compression results in

Higher moment capacity of the wall. Hence,
the beneficial effect of axial compression by
gravity loads should not be fully relied upon
in design due to the possible reduction in
its magnitude by vertical acceleration. For
example, consider a boundary element in
which the unfactored axial compression
due to gravity and earthquake loading is
400 kN and 50 kN, respectively. Also
assume that the bending moment in the
wall due to the seismic force exerts an
additional axial force of 800 kN in the
boundary element. The boundary element
should be designed for the factored
compression force of 1.2[400+50+800]
= 1500 kN. Also, the factored design
tension orce will be (0.8400 1.250
1.2800)= 700kN . Note that a load factor
of 0.8 has
been used for the gravity
load as the gravity load adds to the strength
of the wall by reducing design tension in the
boundary element.

Clause.9.4.4
The percentage of vertical reinforcement
in the boundary elements shall not be
less than 0.8 percent, nor greater than 6
percent. In order to avoid congestion, the
practical upper limit would be 4 percent.

Clause.9.4.5
Boundary elements,
where required, as per
9.4.1, shall be provided
throughout their height,
with special confining
reinforcement,
as per 7.4. The first
equation as per 7.4.8
need not be satisfied for
boundary elements
of shear walls.

Clause.9.4.6
Boundary elements need not be provided, if
the entire wall section is provided with
special confining reinforcement, as per 7.4.

9.5 Coupled Shear Walls

Coupled shear walls shall be
connected by ductile coupling
beams.if the earthquake induced
shear stress in the coupling beam
exceeds.

or when ls / D is less than or

equal to 3, where ls is the clear
span of the coupling beam and D
is its overall depth, the entire
earthquake induced shear and
flexure shall, preferably, be
resisted by diagonal
reinforcement.

Coupling beam must have large

ductility as they are subjected to
extensive in elastic deformations
at their ends. In coupling beams
of small span-to-depth ratio,
diagonal reinforcement is much
more effective in controlling
shear deformations and in
preventing sliding shear failure
as compared to the conventional
parallel reinforcement.
Experiments have shown that
the efficacy of longitudinal
reinforcing steel in coupling
beams is reduced in walls when
ls / D is more than 3.

Clause 9.5.2
The area of reinforcement to be provided
along each diagonal in a diagonally
reinforced coupling beam shall be:

where Vu is the factored shear force,

and is the angle made by the diagonal
reinforcement with the horizontal. At least
4 bars of 8 mm diameter shall be
provided along each diagonal. The
reinforcement along each diagonal shall
be enclosed by special confining
reinforcement, as per 7.4. The pitch of
spiral or spacing of ties shall not exceed
100 mm.

Clause 9.5.3
The diagonal or horizontal
bars of a coupling beam
shall be anchored in the
adjacent walls with an
anchorage length of 1.5
times the development
length in tension.

The increase in
development length is to
consider the adverse
effect of reversed cyclic
loading on the anchorage
of a group of bars.

Clause.9.6-Opening in shear wall

Clause.9.6.1
The shear strength of a
wall with openings
should be checked along
critical planes that pass
through openings.

An opening in a shear
wall causes high shear
stresses in the region of
the wall adjacent to it.
Hence, it is necessary to
check such regions for
adequacy of horizontal
shear reinforcement in
order to prevent a
diagonal tension failure
due to shear.

Clause.9.6.2
Reinforcement shall be provided along the
edges of openings in walls. The area of the
vertical and horizontal bars should be such
as to equal that of the respective interrupted
bars. The vertical bars should extend for the
full storey height. The horizontal bars should
be provided with development length in
tension beyond the sides of the opening

Clause.9.7 Discontinuous Walls

Columns supporting
Columns supporting
discontinuous walls shall
discontinued shear walls
be provided with special
may be subjected to significant
confining
axial compression
reinforcement, as per
and may have to undergo
7.4.4.
extensive inelastic
deformation. Hence, they have
to be adequately confined over
their full height to ensure good
ductility.

Clause.9.8-Construction Joints

The vertical reinforcement ratio

across a horizontal
construction joint shall not be
less.

where v is the factored shear

stress at the joint, Pu is the
factored axial force (positive
for compression), and Ag is
the gross cross
sectional
area of the joint.

Sliding tends to occur at construction

joints during earthquake. This
phenomenon becomes more common
in short shear walls with low gravity
loads. Therefore, the design shear
force at the joint must be less than the
shear force that can safely be
transferred across the joint, Vj. This is
calculated by shear friction concept
and is given by

where, is the coefficient of friction at

the joint (=1.0), and Av is the area of
vertical reinforcement available. To
account for the possible effects of
vertical acceleration, the axial
load is taken as 0.8Pu instead of Pu
itself.

Clause.9.9-Development,Splice and
Anchorage Requirement
Clause.9.9.1
Horizontal reinforcement Horizontal
shall be anchored
reinforcement acts as
we reinforcement for
near the edges of the
resisting the shear
wall or in the confined
force.
Hence,
it
core of the boundary
should
be
well
elements
anchored.

Clause.9.9.2
Splicing Lap splicing of vertical
flexural reinforcement should be
avoided, as far as possible, in
regions where yielding may take
place. This zone of flexural
yielding may be considered to
extend for a distance of lw
above the base of the wall or
one sixth of the wall height,
whichever is more. However,
this distance need not be
greater than 2lw. Not more than
one third of the this vertical
reinforcement shall be spliced
at such a section. Splices in
adjacent bars should be
staggered by a minimum of 600
mm.

Splices are to be avoided in

critical regions Sometimes, a
large number of vertical flexural
reinforcement may have to be
extended up several stories. In
such a case, some splicing in
potential plastic hinge regions
may be unavoidable. Such
splices must be staggered so
that not more than every third
bar is spliced at the same level
in a potential hinge region.

Clause.9.9.3
Lateral ties shall be
provided around lapped
spliced bars that are
larger than 16 mm in
diameter. The diameter of
the tie shall not be less
than one fourth that of the
spliced bar nor less than
6 mm. The spacing of ties
shall not exceed 150 mm
center to center.

Lateral ties help improve

performance of lap
splices even when
concrete cover has
spelled off.

Clause.9.9.4 Welded and Mechanical Splices

Welded splices and
mechanical connections
shall confirm to 26.2.5.2
of IS 456:2000. However,
not more than half the
reinforcement shall be
spliced at a section,
where flexural yielding
may take place

Welded splices and

mechanical connectors
behave better than lap
splices under severe
earthquake shaking.
Therefore, every alternate
bar may be spliced in
potential plastic hinge
region.

T-SHAPE SHEAR
WALL DETAIL

RECTANGULAR SHEAR WALL

Foundation
Details

References
Earthquake engineering-An ICJ compilation
-ACC
Seismic design of reinforced concrete and masonry building
By: T.Paulay and M.J.N Priestley
Tall structure
By: smith and coull.
Design for earthquake By: James ambrose and D.Vergun
Handbook of concrete engineering
By: Mark Fintel
Seismic design handbook
By: Farzad Naeim
http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/eqmaps/fixit/ch3/sld012.htm
http://www.mcvicker.com/vwall.htm