Fermi Dirac Distriburtion Function :

The expression that governs the distribution of

electrons among the energy levels as a function of
temperature is known is as Fermi Distribution
function.
1
f(E) =
1 + exp (E-EF )/KT
The function f(E) indicates the probability that a
particular quantum state at the energy level E is
occupied by an electron.
f( E) =1, if the energy level E is filled by electrons
f( E) =0, for an empty energy level.
EF is Fermi energy or Fermi level.
It provides the reference with which other energies

Energy band structure (Fermi level is

conductor)
E

E
F

Distance

Conductors are characterized by single energy band, namely

conduction band which has more energy levels than free electrons.
Case I :- At T=O K (absolute zero), electrons occupy lower energy
levels in the conduction band leaving the upper levels vacant.
The band is filled up to certain energy level E F Called Fermi level.
Fermi energy level is defined as the uppermost filled
energy in a conductor at O K. or the maximum energy that
an electrons can have in a conductor at O K.
Immediately after E , the energy levels are vacant & Immediately

i) For energy level E lying below EF ( E< EF )

at

T=0K

(E- EF ) is negative,

f(E) =
(e=2.718)

1
1+exp (E-EF )/KT
=

1/(1+e-

= 1/(1+0) =1

f(E)=1 implies all the levels below EF are occupied by electrons.

ii) For energy levels located above EF , (E>E
(E- EF ) is positive,
f (E ) = 1/(1+e )

) at T=0K
= 1/ =0

f (E ) =0, implies that all levels above EF are vacant

iii) For E= EF energy level located at EF at T =0 k
f ( E ) = 1/1+e % = indeterminable
Therefore f ( E) is indeterminable
It has undetermined value ranging between zero & one

II case : - T > 0 K

E
KT

KT

Distance
At tempr above absolute zero , electrons are excited to vacant levels above
the Fermi level.
For most of the electrons lying deep in the valence band , KT is not
enough energy to permit a transition to an un-occupied level.
Eg: EF 7 eV for copper while KT = 0.026 eV at T =300K,
( k = 8.62
X 10-5 eV/K)
They are left undisturbed & remain at their original level. Only those
electrons adjacent to Fermi level can accept this energy & jump to higher
level few levels within the range KT. Most of the deeper levels remain

For level E> EF, at T > 0k

F(E) =
1
1+ e ( E - EF ) / KT
f( E) will have a value greater than zero & the probability at a few lower
levels
( E < EF ) to EF , also have a value greater than zero.
For level (E= EF ) ,
f ( E) = 1/(1+e0 ) = 1/(1+1) =
It implies that the probability of occupancy of Fermi level at any temp r
other than 0 K is 0.5. Thus few levels within the range KT below E F become
partially depleted & a few levels within the energy range KT above E F are
partially filled, but most of the deeper levels remain as they were at 0 K.
C- is cross over point
C
0K
300K
1000K

Show that the probability curve is symmetric

about Fermi level
Let an energy level E2 is above the Fermi level by an
amount of energy E. The probability that energy
level E2 is occupied is given by
f(E2)=f(EF + E)=
1
1+exp[(E2 - EF )/kT]
1
1+exp[(E
1 F + E - EF )/kT]

=
=

1+exp( E /kT)

Let an energy level E1 be below Fermi level by an amount of

energy E
The probability that E1 is not occupied is given by
[1-f(E1 )]

1[1-f(E1 )]

=
1=

1
1+exp[(EF - E - EF )/kT]
1
1+exp( - E / kT)

exp( - E / kT)
1+exp( - E / kT)

1
1+exp( E / kT)

compare equations 1 & 2

f (E2) = 1- f(E1)
Probability function is symmetrical about EF at all
temperature other than 0 K.

Band structure & Fermi energy level in insulator:

As valence electrons are engaged in covalent bands, the valence

band is full conduction band is empty. For the conductivity ,
electrons have to be excited from valence band to the conduction
band. Since energy gap is large, electrons cannot jump into the
conduction band under normal condition.
As the energy levels in valence band are filled, f ( E) is equal to unity
through out the valence band. As these are no electrons in
conduction band, f( E) is zero through out the conduction band.
Since the Fermi function is symmetric about EF, the Fermi level may
be expected to be located in the middle of the energy gap.
For E> EF, f( E) =0
E= EF, f( E) can have value 0 to 1
E> EF, f( E) =1

Energy Band Fermi Level & Fermi energy distribution

function for semiconductor

E
Eg

E
F

Distance
The probability of electron occupancy of the conduction band increases at
temperature greater than 0 K. The probability function is blurred & tapers
off towards higher energy in the conduction band.
Similarly the probability of hole occupancy of levels in valence band
increases. Probability curve blurs near the top edge of valence band. Extent
of blurring in both the bands is equal indicates, electrons in condition band
is equal to holes in valence band. f ( E) rapidly approaches to zero with
increasing E. Electrons in the conduction band are clustered very close to
the bottom edge of the band. Holes are grouped close to the top edge of the
valence band.

Concept of holes & effective Mass

In a silicon crystal, when a covalent bond is broken and an electron is set
free, there arises a quantum vacancy at the site of the broken bond.

Shortage of negative charge is

equivalent to an effective positive
charge +e & is assigned to resulting
vacancy & it is called hole.
The electron at a lower energy level
made an upward transition to a
vacant level. As the electron moves
up, the vacancy moved down.
Electrons
Vacancy & electron move in
Holes
opposite directions in valence band.
Motion of large number of valence
electrons is equivalent to motion of
small number of holes & it simplifies
the understanding of electrical
Current set up by motion of many
electrons
the valence band
conduction
in in
semiconductors.
having one vacancy is equivalent to the current resulting from the
motion of single particle with a +ve charge +e that occupies the
vacancy.

If a vacancy is to be given the status of a particle, a mass also is to

be given to it.
When an electron in a solid is subjected to an electric field, then it
experience the force.
F= me a
where me is mass of electron other than rest mass (mo).rest mass
This is because electron experiences force due to atoms & other
electrons. In this condition (mo) is not valid me is called effective
mass.
Once effective mass me is considered, the electrons can be treated as
free & not bothered about the medium in which it is moving (other
forces) which are acting).
Electrons near the bottom of the conduction band have an effective
mass which is nearly identical to the effective mass of free electron.
Electrons near the top of valence band have negative effective mass.
The removal of an electron with a ve effective mass is identical to
creating in its place a particle of positive effective mass m h.
[The relation between effective density of states & effective mass is
given by

Conductivity and current density in

semiconductor

Conductivity and current density in

semiconductor
The net movement of holes & electrons are called drift
& the corresponding mean velocity is known as drift
velocity ,Vd. This causes a drift current
= Vd /E
or
Vd = E
is mobility of charge carrier & E is applied field.
Current density due to electrons is Je & that if holes is
Jh.
Je = neeVde = neeeE
Jh = nheVdh = nhehE
The total current through semiconductor is
I = Ie + In
Current density J = Je + Jn
= (neee+ nheh)E
Therefore the conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor

Conductivity in Intrinsic Semiconductor :Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic

semiconductor .
Fermi energy level lies midway between
conduction band & valence band.
At
T> 0K
ne = number of electrons in conduction band
(density)
nv = number of holes/unit volume in valence
band (density)
Let
Nc & Nv are the effective density of
states in conduction band & valence band
then,
Boltzmann's equations
ne = Nc exp -(Ec-Ef)/ kT
&
nh = Nv exp

Fermi Level in Intrinsic

Semiconductor
As approximately ne = nh
Nc exp -(Ec-Ef)/ kT = Nv exp -(Ef-Ev)
/ kT
=

Nv
Nc

exp -(Ec-Ef)/ kT
exp -(Ef-Ev) / kT

Nv = N c
exp -(Ec-Ef-Ef+Ev)/ kT = 1
Taking ln on both sides, -(Ec-EfEf+Ev)/ kT =0
Ec+Ev= 2Ef or
Ec Ev +Ev

Ef= (Ec+Ev)/2 =

Thus Fermi level in an intrinsic semi-conductor lies at the centre of

Effect of temperature on Fermi level in

intrinsic semiconductor
As the temperature increases,
the Fermi level draws nearer to
E
the band in which the density
f
of states is less.
At T > 0 K Fermi level shifts
because of the possible
difference between the
effective
masses
in condition
If mh> m
e , Fermi level shifts upwards to the
band
& valence
band. band(2).
bottom
of conduction
If mh< me, Fermi level shifts down wards to the
top of the valence band(3).
But in most of the intrinsic semiconductors mh=
me
Hence Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor is
independent of temperature.

Ec
2
1
3
Ev

Extrinsic Semiconductor

Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by

adding impurities.
Introduction of controlled quantity of impurity into an intrinsic
semiconductor is called doping.
The impurity added is called dopant.
Semiconductor doped with impurity atoms is called extrinsic
semiconductor.
Pentavalent element from group V or trivalent element from
group III are used as dopant.
These dopants are of the same size as silicon or Germanium.
They are substitution impurities & do not cause any distortion in
the original crystal structure. The doping levels range from 10 20
to 10 27 atoms/m3
There are two types of semiconductors.

N type semiconductor
A pentavalent atom introduced in intrinsic
semiconductor forms n type semiconductor .
Eg :- antimony Sb (51) , phosphorous (15), or Arsenic
As (33), will displace some of the germanium atoms in
the original crystal lattice & four of the five valence
electrons of the impurity atom will occupy four
covalent bonds of the fifth electron is free acts as
carrier of current.
At 0 k, the donor atoms are not ionized & the
conduction band is empty.
At slightly elevated temperature , the donor
electrons populate the conduction band. Energy
required to free the 5th electron from the atom is
0.01ev for Ge & 0.05ev for Si.
As the pentavalent impurity donates excess electron,

At temperature above 0 K , electrons out

number the holes & are called majority
carriers & holes are minority carriers. n
indicates -ve sign of majority carriers. Addition
discrete levels are introduced just below the
conduction band known as donor level Ed.

P- type Semiconductor
A semiconductor doped with trivalent impurity
Eg:- Boron B(65), Galliu Ga(31), indium In (49) is
called P type semi conductor.
Trivalent atoms have 3 valence electrons.
When doped with intrinsic semiconductor, they form 3
covalent bonds. Fourth bond is short of electron and forms
hole which can accept electrons from V.B.
As the impurity atom accepts electron, it is called
acceptor impurity.
Each acceptor atom has -e charge & is immobile.
Addition discrete energy levels are introduced just above
the valence band in the forbidden energy gap which is
called acceptor level Ea.
Very small amount of energy is necessary for an electron
to leave the valence band & occupy, the acceptor energy
level, so almost all the vacancies of the acceptor material
are filled by electrons from VB. It thus creates large

Variation of Fermi Level(E F) with temperature.

In extrinsic semiconductor Fermi level varies.
N type : At 0 K , the donor levels are filled. All electrons are bound
to donor atoms.
In n- type semiconductor, in low temperature region, electrons in
conduction band are only due to transitions of electrons from donor
levels. Therefore, the Fermi level E Fn lies between the donor level
Ed and the bottom edge of the conduction band E c.
E Fn = ( Ionization
E c + Ed )/2
region
Depletion region
Intrinsic
region

Ec
Ed

EF
n

Fi= Eg/2

Ev
Td

As the tempr increases, the donor atoms get ionized

& donor electrons go into the conduction band. This
tempr range is called ionization region.
At tempr above 100K, all donor atoms are ionized.
Once all electrons from donor levels are excited into
conduction band, any further tempr increase does
not create additional electrons. This range is called
depletion region. At the tempr of depletion Td , the
Fermi level coincides with the donor level Ed.
EFn = Ed.
As the tempr grows further above Td, transition of
electrons from V.B to conduction band increases. At a
certain stage, electron transition becomes so large
that the intrinsic electron concentration exceeds the
electron concentration due to donors. This is called
intrinsic region.

At tempr above Td, the Fermi level shifts downward in

early till intrinsic region starts. At this tempr Fermi
level approaches the intrinsic value.
EFn = Eg /2 =( Ev. +Ec. )/2
With the further increase in temper, the behavior of
extrinsic semiconductor transforms into that of an
intrinsic type & Fermi level at EFi
P Type
In case of p type semiconductor, the Fermi level EFp
lies between Ea and Ev.
EFp = ( Ea. +Ev )/2
As the tempr increases to ionization tempr Fermi
level rises from below the acceptor level to intrinsic
level.
At ( T= Td)) EFp =( EA. +Ev. )/2 ( Ionization region)

EFi
EFp

Effect of variation of Impurity concentration

N-Type:
At low impurity concentrations, the impurity atoms are
spaced far apart & do not interact with each other. With
an increase in the impurity concentration, their separation
in the crystal decreases & they tend to interact.
The donor levels also undergo splitting & form an energy
band below the conduction band. The larger the doping
concentration , the broader in the impurity band, & at one
stage it overlaps on the conduction band.
It results in the accessibility of upper vacant levels in the
condition band to the donor electrons. The broadening of
donor levels into a band is accompanied by a decrease in
the width of the forbidden gap & also by the upwards
displacement of the Fermi level. The Fermi level moves
closer & closer to the conduction band with increasing
impurity concentration & finally moves into the
conduction band as the donor band overlaps the

In a similar way, in P type semiconductor , the acceptor levels

broaden & form into a band with increasing impurity concentration
which ultimately overlaps on the valence band. The Fermi level moves
down closer to the valence band & finally at very high impurity
concentration it will shift into the valance band.