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CAD CAM
Geometric modeling techniques like wire frame, surface and solid modeling have totally
changed not only the drawing office practices but also have helped to integrate design with
analysis, simulation and optimization as well as to seamlessly integrate design with
downstream manufacturing applications.
Data created in geometric models can thus be directly passed on to all the application
software packages like finite element analysis, mechanism analysis, CNC programming,
inspection etc. Geometric modeling has therefore paved the way for CIM.
The starting point of new product development is conceptual design. The designer has to
develop the shape of the product which in turn has to accommodate the functional parts
inside. Shape design is a critical activity in product design
Use of computer graphics has opened up tremendous possibilities for the designer.
Some of them are listed below:
The object is represented by its geometric model in three dimensions (X, Y and
Z).
The mathematical representation reduces creation of views like orthographic,
isometric, axonometric or perspective projections into simple viewing
transformations.
Though the size of the screen is limited, there is no need to scale the drawings.
Drawings can be made very accurate.
The geometric models can be represented in color and can be viewed from any
angle.
Sections can be automatically created.
The associativity ensures that any change made in one of the related views will
automatically reflect in other views.
Revision and revision control are easy.
Drawings (geometric models) can be modified easily.
More important than all, drawings can be reused conveniently.
Storage and retrieval of drawings are easy.
Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a

geometric model. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
These modeling methods have distinct features and applications.
WIRE FRAME MODELING
In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges.
In the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some clarity can be
obtained through
hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may not provide unambiguous
understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally used in the 2-D
representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation, end view
etc. are used to describe the object graphically.
SURFACE MODELING
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn
are represented
by their vertices and edges. For example, six surfaces are put together to
create a box.
Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design and
automotive design. Surface modeling has been particularly useful in the
development of manufacturing codes for automobile panels and the
complex doubly curved shapes of aerospace structures and dies and
Apart from standard surface types available for surface modeling (box,
moulds.
pyramid, wedge,
dome, sphere, cone, torus, dish and mesh) techniques are available for
interactive modeling
and editing of curved surface geometry.
Surfaces can be created through an assembly of polygonal meshes or using
advanced curve and surface modeling techniques like B-splines or NURBS
(Non-Uniform Rational B-splines). Tabulated surfaces, ruled surfaces and
edge surfaces are simple ways in which curved geometry could be created
and edited.
SOLID MODELING
The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object
divides the 3-D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interior,
separated by the boundary of the solid. Solid models are:
bounded
homogeneously three dimensional
finite
There are six common representations in solid modeling.
i. Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a section
of 3D space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume elements called
voxels.
ii. Cell Decomposition: This is a hierarchical adaptation of spatial enumeration. 3D
space is sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple cells are
glued together to describe a solid object.
iii. Boundary Representation: The solid is represented by its boundary which consists
of a set of faces, a set of edges and a set of vertices as well as their topological
relations.
iv. Sweep Methods: In this technique a planar shape is moved along a curve.
Translational sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep
could be used for axisymmetric components.
v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object shapes
In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the
following three techniques:
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
In a CSG model, physical objects are created by combining basic elementary shapes known
as primitives like blocks, cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres. The Boolean operations
like union (), difference () and intersection are used to carry out this task. For example,
let us assume that we are using two primitives, a block and a cylinder which are located in.
A union operation (A B) will combine the two to convert them into a new solid. The
difference operation (A B) will create a block with a hole. An intersection operation (A
B) will yield the portion common to the two primitives.
Boundary Representation (B-rep)
Boundary representation is built on the concept that a physical object is enclosed by a set
of faces which themselves are closed and orientable surfaces. In this model, face is
bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices. The entities which constitute a Brep model are: Geometric entities, Topological entities, Point Vertex, Curve, line Edge,
Surface Face
A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description

which includes not only the external surfaces of part, but also the parts internal structure. A
solid model allows the designer to determine information like the objects mass properties,
interferences, and internal cross sections. Solid models differ from wire frame and surface
models in the kind of geometric information they provide.
Wire frame models only show the edge geometry of an object. They say nothing about what is
inside an object. Surface models provide surface information, but they too lack information
about an objects internal structure.
Solid models provide complete geometric descriptions of objects.
Engineers use solid models in different ways at different stages of the design process. Since
computer-based solid models are a lot easier to change and manipulate than the physical
mock-ups or prototypes, more design iterations and modifications can be easily carried out as
a part of the design process. Using solid modeling techniques a design engineer can modify a
design several times while optimizing geometry. Solid models can be used for quick and
reliable design analysis. Solid models apart from geometric information provide important data
such as volume, mass, mass properties and centre of gravity. The designer can also export
models created to other applications for finite element analysis (FEA), rapid prototyping and
other special engineering applications. Finally designers can generate detailed production
drawings directly from the solid model. This capability increases design productivity
considerably. Another important feature of solid modeling is associativity. Detailed drawings
are linked to solid model through the associativity feature. This is a powerful function - as an
ISO 10303 is an ISO standard for the computer-interpretable representation and

exchange of product manufacturing information. Its official title is: Automation
systems and integration Product data representation and exchange. It is
known informally as "STEP", which stands for "Standard for the Exchange
of Product model data". ISO 10303 can represent 3D objects in Computeraided design (CAD) and related information.
The international standard's objective is to provide a mechanism that is
capable of describing product data throughout the life cycle of a product,
independent from any particular system. The nature of this description makes
it suitable not only for neutral file exchange, but also as a basis for
implementing and sharing product databases and archiving.
Typically STEP can be used to exchange data between CAD, computer-aided
manufacturing, computer-aided engineering, product data
management/enterprise data modeling and other CAx systems. STEP
addresses product data from mechanical and electrical design, geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing, analysis and manufacturing, as well as
additional information specific to various industries such as automotive,
aerospace, building construction, ship, oil and gas, process plants and others.
The Initial Graphics Exchange Specification (IGES) (pronounced eye-jess) is a vendorneutral file format that allows the digital exchange of information among computer-aided
design (CAD) systems. The official title of IGES is Digital Representation for Communication of
Product Definition Data, first published in January, 1980 by the U.S. National Bureau of
Standards as NBSIR 80-1978. Many documents (like early versions of the Defense Standards
MIL-PRF-2800 and MIL-STD-1840[2]) referred to it as ASME Y14.26M, the designation of the
ANSI committee that approved IGES Version 1.0. Using IGES, a CAD user can exchange product
data models in the form of circuit diagrams, wireframe, freeform surface or solid modeling
representations. Applications supported by IGES include traditional engineering drawings,
models for analysis, and other manufacturing functions.

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CAD CAM

Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a

A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description

ISO 10303 is an ISO standard for the computer-interpretable representation and

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