Radiography

Workshop on NonDestructive Testing
Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. H. Gardi College of Engineering & Technology
Gardi Vidhyapeeth
Rajkot
Expert Lecture on RADIOGRAPHY

TESTING
Bhavin H. Sukhadiya
Director (Technical)
I TECH Advance Inspection Services
Shapar (Rajkot)
Non-Destructive Testing
What is NDT (Non-Destructive
Testing) ?
Significance of NDT in present
context
Prevention of Hazard
Strong tool to Quality Assurance & Quality
Control
Preventive Maintenance Tool
Direct & indirect benefits
and many more.
Various NDT methods

NDT exists from ancient times (Simple methods
VT & AE).
Industrial revolution during World Wars induced
requirements of strong QA/QC tools which
eventually
developed as NDT.
Visual Testing
Neutron Radiography
Various
Liquid Penetrant
Infra Red Thermography
MethodsTesting
Magnetic Particle
Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Radiography Testing
Acoustic Emission
Testing
Leak Testing
Eddy Current Testing
Vibration Analysis
Guided Wave Testing
Magnetic Flux Leakage
Testing
LASER methods
Radiography : Advantages &

Limitations
Advantage :
Both surface and Internal discontinuities detected
Significant variations in composition detected
Has a very few material limitations.
Can be used for inspecting hidden areas
Very minimal or no part preparation is required.
Permanent test record is obtained.
Good portability especially for gamma-ray sources
Limitations :
Hazardous , Thorough trainting & Safety precautions required
It requires a two-sided access to the component
Highly directional (sensitive to flaw orientation).
Depth of discontinuity is not indicated
High degree of skill required for exposure and interpretation
Equipment & consumables relatively expensive
The process is generally slow
PRINCIPLE & OUTLINE OF

THE METHOD
Principle :
Passing a very short wave electromagnetic radiation (such as X & Gamma Rays)
through test object & capture it on recording media to form an image of its
volumetric details
Discontinui
ty
Discontinui
ty Image
Radiation passing though any

material gets attenuated (Intensity
Decreased).
Attenuation depends on density &
mass of material being radiographed
Thickness & density of material
controls the Optical Density
(grayscale) developed on X-ray film
Radiation Sources
X-Ray Sources
X-ray generated from Xray generator tube with
special arrangements of
electron emission, Target
material and cooling
system.
X-ray is generated by
striking Hi-speed
electrons on a material so
that they rapidly
decelerated and energy
difference is emitted as
Bremsstrahlung
(Breaking) radiation
Called X-ray
Governing Factors of X-ray

application
Energy of X-ray photons
Energy of X-ray depends on potential difference

(Voltage difference)
between filament & target
Measured in Kilovolt (KeV)
Decides penetration ability & exposure time
Beam strength of X-ray
Photon flux coming out from X-ray tube

Controlled by current flow in filament
Measured in Mili Ampere (mA)
Decides Image Quality & exposure time
Thickness range : X-ray machine ranges from 150Kev to

400Kev
So thickness range varies from few mm to 50-60mm approx. of
Steel
(for constant potential tube)
Hi energy X-ray Sources
Linear Accelerator (LINAC) & Betatron

Electrons from filament accelerated by some means
Energy ranging from 1MeV to 30 MeV achieved.
Thickness penetrated : upto 500mm steel
Very large & stationary setup
Gamma Ray Sources

Gamma Ray emitted by an Isotope (instable form of an element) due
to a nuclear
phenomenon called Radioactive Decay
Such Radioactive material is obtained naturally or made artificially by
bombarding
neutrons on it
Isotope have same Atomic No. but Different Mass No.(due to addition
neutrons)
Gamma Rays have same property as X-ray but have different energy
bands
Each Radioactive sources emits photons of specific energies & have a
specific Half life.
Radio Isotope used for radiography :
Radiography Device : (Camera)

Industrial Gamma Radiography Exposure Device (IGRED) is
a remotely operated
shielded container for safe handling, transport & RT
exposure process
Shielding material hi-density materials: Lead, Tungsten and
Depleted Uranium (DU)
Safe, Robust, Portable, Mechanically & remotely operated,
self locking
RADIATION SAFETY
Only the Institution & operators trained & licensed
by a regulatory authority of the nation (for us BARC)
can operate radiation devices
Has to follow strict established rules & safe working
procedures
Use of radiation safety equipments
Safe limits : Public & Radiation Worker
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable)
Radiation used in Radiography is IONIZING
RADIATION, destroys chemical bonds & generates ion
pairs (free radicals).
TDS ( Time , Distance , Shielding)
Safety equipments : Radiation Survey meters,
Gamma Zone
Monitors, Dosimeters, TLD badges
Radiation Safety Equipment
Exposure
time
Depends on
Type of Source
Source Strength (Ci) / KeV
Source to Film Distance
(SFD)
Type of material to be
radiographed
Type of film (Film Speed)
Geometrical Unsharpness
Industrial X-ray Films

Film Speed : Sensitivity to Light
or Radiation
Grain Size : Size of Ag-Br crystals
Relations :
Grain size : Increase , Speed :
Decrease
Image sensitivity : Decrease
Grain size : Decrease , Speed :
Increase
Image sensitivity : Increase
Above Parameters established by
ASTM, ISO
According to such std. Films
manufactured
AGFA , CARESTREAM (KODAK), FUJI,
FOMA
Intensifying Screen
X-ray film is loaded in to Light tight
cover between Screens (Lead,
Copper etc)
Available in different thickness &
materials
Chosen based on radiation energy
Intensify Radiation energy by
Photoelectric effect, reduce Exposure
time considerably
Reduce effects of scattered radiation
Film
Processing
Processing done in darkroom in Red visible SAFE light

which
least affect the film
Developer : Alkaline Solution (20 Deg. Temp.
required)
Convert Latent image to visible form
Stop bath : Water with slight Acetic acid Stops
Developing
action
Fixer : Acidic Solution Make visible image permanent
by converting
AgBr into Solid Black Silver Harden the
Gelatin layer
Running water : Wash away fixer and dirt
Soap solution : Decrease surface tension of stuck
Film interpretation
Film Viewed on illuminator after drying
Following parameters checked,
Optical Density (Degree of blackness) by
Densitometer
If film is free from dirt, processing artifacts,
mechanical damage, false image due to bad
surface preparation
Image quality (Sensitivity)
Notice discontinuities (Each discontinuity is
not DEFECT)
Acceptability of Discontinuity
Report preparation
Defect Marking
Film parameters
Film Density
Degree of blackness of X-ray
film
A factor(unit less) = Ratio of
transmitted light intensity to
received light intensity at
other end
Generally kept 2.0 to 4.0 or
1.5 to 4.0 as per prevailing
codes and standards
Range decided to ensure
proper detection of defect on
film
Measured with an electronic
equipment called Transmission
Optical Densitometer
Image Quality (Sensitivity)

Indicates how minor discontinuities would
be detected on X-ray film
Image quality quantified on film by some
means called Image Quality Indicator (IQI)
IQI placed on test specimen so that its
image overlaps over specimen image or put
on identical thickness & material block
Proper & sharp image of IQI indicates, film
have recorded finest detail of specimen
volume
Types of IQI
Based on Standards
: 1) ASTM Type 2) DIN / EN Type 3)
AFNOR type
Based on Construction : 1) Wire Type
2) Hole Type
Image Quality requirements

Varies from standard by standard or as per
purchasers requirements
General requirements
2% ; means 2% of specimen thickness
2T hole should be visible (it meets 2% req.)
Above 2% matches with nearest wire dia.

In wire type IQI or 2T value
Eventually above dimension of 2% or 2T
straightly indicates minimum discontinuity
dimension that can be surely detected
Film Artifacts
Unwanted disturbance to image recorded on
X-ray film is called Film artifacts
This includes mechanical damage such as
scratches & pressure mark, light fog, dirt
mark, chemical marks during processing,
finger marks, etc.
Such artifacts should be avoided by good
housekeeping and skilled practices or
reshoot should be taken to avoid
misinterpretation
Advance Methods in Radiography
Standards
ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code Section V (Procedure & other things
related to NDT)
ASME BPVC code Sec. VIII Div 1 & 2 (Rules for construction of pressure
vessel)
ASME B31.1 (Power Piping)
ASME B31.3 (Process Piping)
ASTM E-446 Reference Radiographs for Steel Castings upto 51mm
ASTM E-186 Reference Radiographs for Steel castings from 51mm to 114
mm
ASTM E-192 Reference Radiographs for Castings used for Aerospace
applications
ASTM E-155 Refrerence Radiographs for Aluminum & Magnesium Castings
DIN EN 12681
DIN EN 1690 Part 2 / Part 10
DIN EN 444
DIN EN 462-1/2/3
..many more
Welding Defects
Welding Defects
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
Casting Defects
Thank You
Questions ???.........
.........

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Workshop on NonDestructive Testing

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Expert Lecture on RADIOGRAPHY

Various NDT methods

Radiography : Advantages &

PRINCIPLE & OUTLINE OF

Radiation passing though any

Governing Factors of X-ray

Energy of X-ray photons

Energy of X-ray depends on potential difference

Beam strength of X-ray

Photon flux coming out from X-ray tube

Thickness range : X-ray machine ranges from 150Kev to

Hi energy X-ray Sources

Linear Accelerator (LINAC) & Betatron

Gamma Ray Sources

Radiography Device : (Camera)

Radiation Safety Equipment

Industrial X-ray Films

Processing done in darkroom in Red visible SAFE light

Image Quality (Sensitivity)

Image Quality requirements

Above 2% matches with nearest wire dia.

Advance Methods in Radiography

Advance Methods in Radiography

Advance Methods in Radiography

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