"A review of current routing protocols

for ad hoc mobile wireless networks"

E. Royer and C.-K. Toh,
IEEE Personal Communications,
April 1999, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 46~55
Presented by K.C. Lee
2003/07/15
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Traditional routing
algorithm(1/4)

Distance Vector (DV)

Each node maintains a table giving the distance from itself to all
possible destination.
Periodically broadcasts update packets to each of the neighbors.
Bellman-Ford algorithm

Finding the shortest path to determine the correct next hop of its
neighbors.

When presented a packet for forwarding to some destination,

each router simply forwards the packet to the correct next hop
router.
Problem: route looping count to infinity

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Traditional routing
algorithm(2/4)

Example of DV:
1

Routing table at node 5 :

Destination Next Hop

Distance

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2
4
5

Traditional routing
algorithm(3/4)

Link State (LS)

Each

node maintains a view of the network

topology with a cost for each link.
Each node periodically broadcasts the cost of
its outing links to all other nodes.
Using a shortest-path algorithm to choose its
next hop for each destination.

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Traditional routing
algorithm(4/4)

Example of LS:

0 {1}

At node 5, based on the link state

packet, topology table is
constructed:

{0,2,3} 1

{1,4}

{1,4,5} 2

Dijkstras Algorithm can then

be used for the shortest path
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{2,3,5}
{2,4}

5
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Problems of traditional routing algorithms

Dynamic of the topology

frequent changes of connections, connection quality,
participants
Limited performance of mobile systems
periodic updates of routing tables need energy without
contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep
modes difficult to realize
limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more
due to the exchange of routing information
Asymmetric links
connection in wireless network may be not symmetric
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Overview of Current Routing

Protocols

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Table-driven vs. On-demand

Table-Driven Routing Protocol:

proactive!!
continuously

evaluate the routes

attempt to maintain consistent, up-to-date routing
information

when a route is needed, one may be ready immediately

when

the network topology changes

the protocol responds by propagating updates throughout the

network to maintain a consistent view

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Table-driven vs. On-demand (cont.)

Source-Initiated On-Demand Routing Protocol:

reactive!!
on-demand

style: create routes only when it is desired

by the source node

route discovery: invoke a route-determination procedure, the

procedure is terminated when

a route has been found

no route is found after all route permutations are examined

route maintained by a route maintenance procedure until

inaccessible along every path from the source

no longer desired

longer

delay: sometimes a route may not be ready for

use immediately when data packets come
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Table-Driven Routing Protocols

Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV)

Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)

C. E. Perkins and P. Bhagwat, Highly Dynamic Destination-Sequenced

Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) for Mobile Computer, Comp.
Commun. Rev., Oct. 1994, pp. 234-244.

C.-C. Chiang, Routing in Clustered Multihop, Mobile Wireless Networks

with Fading Channel, Proc. IEEE SICON 97, Apr. 1997, pp. 197-211.

Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)

S. Murthy and J. J. Garcia-Luna-Aceves, An Efficient Routing Protocol

for Wireless Networks, ACM Mobile Networks and App. J., Special
Issue on Routing in Mobile Communication Networks, Oct. 1996, pp.
183-197.

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DSDV: Destination Sequence

Distance Vector (1/4)

Expansion of distance vector based on Bellman-Ford

routing mechanism include freedom from loops in routing
tables.
Every node maintains a routing table in which the
information of all possible destinations recorded.
Each entry of route is marked with a sequence number
assigned by the destination.

distinguish stale routes from new ones

avoid the formation of routing loops

The route with the most recent sequence number is

always used, when having the same sequence, the route
with smaller metric is used.
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DSDV (2/4)

Routing table updates are periodically transmitted or as

needed throughout the network in order to maintain
consistency.
To reduce the routing update overhead, employ two
types of packets.

full dump

This type of packet carries all available routing information and can
require multiple network protocol data units (NPDUs).
During periods of occasional movement, these packets transmitted
infrequently.

incremental

Fitted into a standard NPDU.

Being used to relay only that information which has changed since
last full dump.
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DSDV(3/4)

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DSDV(4/4)

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CGSR: Cluster Head and Gateway

Switching Routing(1/3)

The arrangement of cluster head is similar to dominating set in

graph theory.

Definition: each node is either in the dominating set or is neighboring

to a node in the dominating set.

disadvantage: (busy in cluster head selection rather than packet

relaying.)
Least Cluster Change (LCC) clustering algorithm to reduce
number of cluster head selections (only change when two cluster
heads come into contact, or when a node moves out of contact of
all other cluster heads)
Data forwarding steps:

from cluster head to cluster head

in a hierarchical manner

then from cluster head to cluster members

between two cluster heads, gateways are used to forward the packets

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CGSR (2/3)

Each node keep two table

Cluster member table

Routing table

It stores the destination cluster head for each mobile node in the
network.
Being broadcasted by each node periodically using DSDV manner.
Being used to determine the next hop in order to reach the
destination.

Advantage: less routing information to be kept

Disadvantage: longer route

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CGSR (3/3)

Example:
Node

5
Cluster head

4
1

Gateway

8
2

Routing from node 1 to node 8

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CGSR(cont.)

(5 hops)
(3 hops)

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WRP: Wireless Routing

Protocol

Belong to the class of path finding Algorithm;

uses the length and predecessor to destination in the shortest path.
Eliminates the count to Infinity Problem by forcing nodes to do consistency
check of the predecessors.

Each node is responsible for keeping track of four tables:

distance,
routing,
link cost,
message retransmission list (MRL).

An Update message is sent after processing updates from neighbors or a

change in link to a neighbor is detected.
After receiving an update message free of errors, a node is required to send
a positive acknowledgment (ACK).
If a node is not sending messages, it must send a hello message within a
specified time period to ensure connectivity.

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WRP (cont.)

Example:

(0, J)
J

10

5
10
1 (10,
(2, B)
K)

(10,
(2,
K) I)
I

K
(1,
(11,
(,K)
K)
B)
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Comparisons of the characteristics

driven
DSDV
ofTabletable-driven
routing CGSR
protocol WRP
Routing philosophy

Flat

Hierarchical

Flat

Loop-free

Yes

Yes

Yes, but not

instantaneous

No. of required tables

Frequency of update
transmissions

Periodically
and as needed

Periodically

Periodically and
as needed

Neighbors

Neighbors and
cluster head

Neighbors

Utilize hello message

Yes

No

Yes

Critical nodes

No

Cluster head

No

Updates transmitted to

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Source-initiated on-demand

Ad-Hoc on-demand distance vector routing (AODV)

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

V. D. Park and M. S. Corson, A Highly Adaptive Distributed Routing Algorithm for Mobile
Wireless Networks, Proc. INFOCOM 97, Apr. 1997.

Associativity-Based routing (ABR)

D. B. Johnson and D. A. Maltz, Dynamic Source Routing in Ad-Hoc Wireless

Networks, Mobile Computing, T. Imielinski and H. Korth, Eds., Kluwer, 1996, pp.
15381.

Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA)

C. E. Perkins and E. M. Royer, Ad-hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing, Proc. 2nd
IEEE Wksp. Mobile Comp. Sys. and Apps., Feb. 1999, pp. 90100.

C-K. Toh, A Novel Distributed Routing Protocol To Support Ad-Hoc Mobile Computing, Proc.
1996 IEEE 15th Annual Intl. Phoenix Conf. Comp. and Commun., Mar. 1996, pp. 48086.

Signal stability routing (SSR)

R. Dube et al., Signal Stability based Adaptive Routing (SSA) for Ad-Hoc Mobile Networks,
IEEE Pers. Commun., Feb. 1997, pp. 3645.

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AODV: Ad-hoc On-Demand

Distance Vector Routing (1/3)

Improved over DSDV algorithm (minimize the number of

required broadcast by creating routes on a demand
basis; maintain a complete list of routes as in the DSDV
algorithm)
Nodes (not on a selected path) dont maintain routing
information or participate in routing table exchanges.
Instead of source routing, AODV relies on dynamically
establishing route table entries at intermediate node.
AODV use the concept of destination sequence number
from DSDV.
AODV only supports the use of symmetric links.

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AODV (2/3)

Path discovery procedure using RREQ/RREP query cycles.

Route table management

AODV maintains routes as long as they are active.

Path maintenance

Reverse Path setup

Forward path setup

The source moves: reinitiate the route discovery

Other node moves: a special RREP is sent to the affected source
nodes

Local connectivity management

Broadcasts used to update local connectivity information

Inactive nodes in an active path required to send hello messages

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AODV (3/3)

Example:

X
X
S
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DSR: Dynamic Source Routing (1/6)

Each host maintains a route cache which
contains all routes it has learnt.
Source Routing:

routes

are denoted with complete information

(each hop is registered)

Two major parts:

route

discovery
route maintenance
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DSR (2/6)

When a host has a packet to send, it first consults

its route cache.
If

there is an unexpired route, then it will use it.

Otherwise, a route discovery will be performed.

Route Discovery:
There

is a route record field in the packet.

The source node will add its address to the record.

On receipt of the packet, a host will add its address to the
route record and rebroadcast the packet.

To limit

the number of ROUTE_REQUEST packets:

Each node only rebroadcasts the packet at most once.

Each node will consult its route cache to see if a route is
already known.

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DSR (3/6)

A ROUTE_REPLY packet is generated when

the

route request packet reaches the destination

an intermediate host has an unexpired route to the
destination

The ROUTE_REPLY packet will contain a route

generated in following manner:
Use

the route of destination route cache (if route cache

has the route information)
the route that was traversed by the ROUTE_REQUEST
packet (if symmetric)
route discovery and piggyback the route reply on the
new request (if asymmetric)
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DSR (4/6)
Routing discovery

routing reply

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DSR (5/6)

Routing maintenance
Use

acknowledgements or a layer-2 scheme

to detect broken links.
Inform sender via route error packet.
Initiate route discovery.
All routes which contain the breakage hop
have to be removed from the route cache.

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DSR (6/6)
Route Error packet

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TORA: Temporally ordered routing (1/7)

During the route creation and maintenance phase, nodes

establish a directed acyclic graph(DAG).
A logical direction is imposed on the links towards the destination
Starting from any node in the graph, a destination can be reached by
following the directed links
Highly adaptive, efficient, scalable, distributed algorithm
Multiple routes from source to destination
For highly dynamic mobile, multi-hop wireless network

B
A

D
E

G
F
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TORA (2/7)

Assigns a reference level (height) to each node

Timing is an important factor for TORA because the height metric
is dependent on the logical time of a link failure.

metric:

logical time of a link failure

The unique ID of the node that defined the new reference level
A reflection indicator bit
A propagation ordering parameter
The unique ID of the node

Adjust reference level to restore routes on link failure

Query, Update, Clear packets used for creating, maintaining and
erasing routes
A DAG is maintained for each destination

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TORA (3/7)

Three major tasks

Route creation: QRY and UPD packets
Route maintenance
Route erasure: Clear packet (CLR) is broadcasted

Using Unique node ID and unique reference ID

Route Creation: demand driven query/reply

Route Maintenance: link-reversal algorithm

A query packet (QRY) is flooded through network

An update packet (UPD) propagates back if routes exist
React only when necessary
Reaction to link failure is localized in scope

Route Erasure:

A clear packet (CLR) is flooded through network to erase invalid routes

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TORA (4/7)

Route creation of TORA

(-,-)

(-,-)

(-,-)

(-,-)

(-,-)

s
8

(-,-)

(0,1)

(0,3)

(0,0)

(-,-)

(0,3)

(0,3)
8

(0,2)

Propogation of QRY
(reference level, height)

(0,2)

(0,0)

(0,1)

Height of each node

updated by UPD

Route Creation in TORA

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TORA (5/7)

Creation of route

QRY
UPD

QRY
UPD

QRY
UPD

UPD E

C
UPD
QRY
D

G
(DEST)

F
QRY
UPD
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UPD

H
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TORA (6/7)

Route maintenance

UPD
A

UPD

C
UPD
D

F
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X
H

G
(DEST)

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TORA (7/7)

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ABR: Associativity-Based routing (1/6)

Source Initiated Routing, Query-Reply packets

Goal: Best route is selected based on stability and shortest
path. The stability is measured using associativity ticks(initially
set to zero)
Each node broadcasts beacons, the nodes increment
associativity ticks when they receive beacons and sets zero if
beacon is not received. High Associativity means high stability.
Route is long-lived and free from loops, deadlock, and packet
duplicates
ABR provides the method of reconstructing when link fails
The protocol contains 3 phases:
Route discovery: BQ-REPLY cycle
Route reconstruction (RRC):
Route deletion (RD): Source-initiated

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ABR (2/6)

Route discovery: accomplished by a broadcast query and awaitreply(BQ-REPLY) cycle.

A node desiring a route broadcasts a BQ message in search of
mobiles a route broadcasts a BQ(Broadcast query) message in
search of mobiles that have a route to the destination
All nodes receiving the BQ append their address and their
associativity ticks with their neighbors along with QoS information to
query packet.
A successor node erases its upstream node neighbors
associativity ticks entries and retains only the entry concerned with
itself and its upstream node.

The destination computes the total of the associativity ticks

The destination will know all the possible routes and their qualities.
It then selects the best route based on stability and associativity
ticks.
If multiple paths have the same overall degree of association
stability, the route with minimum number of hops is selected.

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ABR (3/6)

Route reconstruction (RRC):

Case1: source moves

SRC

BQ

DES
T

SRC
FQ[1]

A RN(erase notification) to erase the route entries

associagted
A new BQ-REPLY process
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ABR (4/6)

Route reconstruction (RRC):

Case2: destination moves

DEST

LQ[H
]
SRC

H=3

DES
T

FQ[0]
FQ[0]

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ABR (5/6)

Route reconstruction (RRC):

Case3: IN moves

DES
T
LQ[3]

H=3

SRC

IN
IN

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ABR (6/6)

Route deletion (RD): Source-initiated

The source initiate a route delete(RD) broadcast so that all nodes along
the route update their routing table

New metric: degree of association stability

Beacons periodically sent to its neighbors
Updates the associativity table
Association stability means connection stability
Associativity ticks reset

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SSR

New metric: signal strength between nodes and a nodes location

stability
SSR consists of 2 cooperative protocols: Dynamic Routing (DRP) &
Static Routing (SRP)
The DRP is responsible for the maintenance of the signal stability
table(SST) with the fields [host, signal strength, last, clicks, set] and
routing table(RT) with the field [destination, next host].
After updating all appropriate table entries, the DRP passes a received
packet to the SRP
SRP:

Passing the packet up the stack if it is the intended receiver

If no entry is found in the RT for the destination, initiate a route-search
process to find a route
Else forwarding the packet

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SSR (cont.)

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SSR (cont.)

Route discovery and route maintenance

By default, only route request packets from strong channels are forwarded
initiate a new route-search process; erase the old route

If there is no route-reply message received, the route changes to

accept weak channel.

E
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E
47

ZRP: Zone routing protocol

Hybrid of table-driven and on-demand!!

From each node, there is a concept of zone.

Within each zone, the routing is performed in a table-driven

manner (proactive), similar to DSDV.
However, a node does not try to keep global routing information.

For inter-zone routing, on-demand routing is used.

This is similar to DSR.

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Comparisons of the characteristics of source-initiated on demand routing

protocol

On-demand

AODV

DSR

TORA

ABR

SSA

Medium

Medium

High

High

High

Overhead

Low

Medium

Medium

High

High

Routing philosophy

Flat

Flat

Flat

Flat

Flat

Loop-free

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Multicast capability

Yes

No

No

No

No

Beaconing requirements

No

No

No

Yes

yes

Multiple route support

No

Yes

Yes

No

no

Overall complexity

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Comparisons of the characteristics of source-initiated on demand routing

protocol
On-demand
AODV
DSR
TORA
ABR
SSR

Routes
maintained in

Route
table

Route
cache

Route table

Route table

Route table

Route
reconfiguration
methodlogy

Erase
route;
notify
source

Erase
route;
notify
source

Link
reversal;
route repair

Localized
broadcast
query

Erase route;
notify
source

Routing metric

Freshest
and
shortest
path

Shortest
path

Shortest
path

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Associativity Associativity
and shortest and widest
path and
others

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Parameters
Availability of Routing
Information
Routing Philosophy
Periodic route updates
Coping with Mobility
Signaling Traffic Generated

QoS Support

On Demand

Table Driven

Available when needed

Always available regardless

of need

Flat

Mostly Flat except for CGSR

Not Required

Yes

Using Localized route

discovery in ABR

Inform other nodes to achieve

consistent routing tables

Grows with increasing

mobility of active nodes as in
ABR

Greater than that of On

Demand Routing

Few Can Support QoS

Mainly Shortest Path as QoS

Metric

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